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CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES; 



BEING PART OF THE 



MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE/ 



FROM. THE GERMAN OF 

X J. ESCHENBURG, 

FORMER PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM AT BRUNSWICK. 



EMBRACING TREATISES ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS: 



I. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRA- 
PHY. 



\^. (^LASStCAL^HRONOLO^Y.^ 



III. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

IV. GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 
V. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



WITH IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS, 



K wrFi 



BY 



KE, A. M. 



LATE^OFESSOR OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 



# 



k 



uJIj pllit^ttittd. 



FOURTEENTH THOUSAND. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

W. S. FORTESCUE & CO., 

(Successors to E. C. & J. Biddle,) 

No. 811 Arch Street. 




T)B56 
.£73 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 

W. S. FOETESCUE & CO., 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 




CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO., PHILA. 



PREFACE. 



For an account of the origin and design of the Manual of Classical 
Literature, the reader is respectfully referred to the Preface to ttiai 
u-ork. The present volume is a portion of the Manual, including 
I'Ut three of its Jive Parts. These three, viz. : Classical Geography 
and Chronology, Greek ind Roman Mythology, and Greek and JRo- 
•nan Antiquities, are published separately, from a regard to the 
^Yishes of some teachers, especially in the primary classical schools. 

The reasons for a separate publication of these parts will appear, 
(\'hen it is considered, that the scholar, in the very commencement 
of his classical studies, needs some guide and help in each of these 
oranches, Avhile it is not so essential that he should attend particu- 
larly at first to the branches with which the two other parts of the 
Manual are occupied. The whole ground embraced in the Manual, 
the student must, indeed, go over before completing his classical 
course ; but the Archaeology of Literature and Art, and the System- 
atic History and Criticism of the Classical Authors, are not often 
inchided in the studies at the Academy. In consequence of sug- 
gestions of this kind, a thousand copies of the three parts contained 
in this volume were printed in connection with the first and second 
editions of the Manual, and the demand for them has been such as 
to induce the publisher to issue another impression. 

This ncAv edition of the volume styled Classiccd Antiquities is 
much more valuable than the former, as it corresponds to the fourth 
edition of the Manual, and is illustrated by numerous engravings. 

A peculiarity of this volume, which has greatly recommended it 
m the estimation of teachers, is its comprehensiveness united with a 
fullness of detail sufficient for all the common purposes of elementary 
instruction. Ancient Geography with the Topography of Rome 
and Athens, Classical Chronology, Mythology, Greek Antiquities, 
and Roman Antiquities, are here presented within the compass of 
304 pages. There is not in the English language, it is believed, 
another work in which these topics, all so essential to the 3'oung 
classical scholar, are brought into one volume and thus adapted for 
daily use. If, because the work comprehends so much, any one 
should be disposed to infer that each part must be defective, he is 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

requested to examine and compare. The Epitome of Classical 
Geography will be found to comprise every thing of special import- 
ance in Butler's work on the subject, with much improvement in 
several points of arrangement, and an account far more complete 
of the remains of Rome, Athens, and other cities. The Introduction 
to Chronology contains what is most essential in the Treatise of 
Hegewisch, with many things of great importance not found in that, 
nor in any of the works on Antiquities now in use. The Treatise 
on Greek Antiquities is by no means intended to exclude such a 
work as Patterns, which is more minute on some points ; but the 
competent teacher will discover that this condensed treatise contains 
important information for which his pupil will search in vam in 
Potter ; and he will on comparison find it as full on every essential 
point as any other treatise used in our country, while the Greek 
Mythology and Topography are given separately and with much 
greater fullness. In the Roman Antiquities the plan of. the work 
did not allow that frequent citation of the Latin authors which marks 
the pages of ^dam ; and the treatise is not expected wholly to super- 
sede the use of that or some larger work ; but a comparison of the 
treatise in this volume with any other used in American schools, will 
satisfy the teacher that it is more full and complete, independently of 
the Roman Mythology, Geography and Topography introduced 
separately; and some persons of experience in teaching have 
expressed their conviction, that the scholar is likely to obtain from 
the study of a treatise like this, a better general knowledge of Roman 
Antiquities than from the study of such a work as that of Adam ; on- 
this point, however, the translator ought perhaps to be silent. 

There is another peculiarity, which distinguishes this work, viz.: 
that it presents numerous references to authors treating of the 
general subjects, and also, in many cases, to works on particular 
topics introduced. These references are given in such a manner as 
not to delay or embarrass the youngest student, and yet they may 
help the more advanced scholar and the teacher to find readily furthei 
information, if they wish and have the time and means at command. 

In offering to American teachers and scholars this new edition 
the author may be allowed to express his hope that it may subserve 
in some degree the highly important cause of classical and libera 
education ; from an ardent desire to promote which he originally 
prepared the Translation of Eschenburg's Manual, 

\mherst College, July, 1843. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 



EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Introduction, p. 3, 4. 

S^^ 1-5. = § 1-3 Portion of earth known 
to ancients. § 4, 5 Ancient divisions. 

I. Of Europe, p. 4-43. 

§§ 6-148. = § 6, 7 Extent and bounda- 
ries. % 8 General subdivisions. § 9-15 
Northern countries of Europe ; Scandina- 
via, Cirnbrica, Sarmatia, Germania, &c. 
'5> 16-26 Middle countrits of Europe ; Gal- 
lia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Iliyri- 
cum, Moesia, Dacia. § 27-129 Southern 
coiuitries of Europe. ^ 29-31 Hispania. 
^32-50 Italia. § 51-71 Topography of 
Rome. ^51, 52 Gates and roads. § 53 
Bridges and hills. "^ 54 Districts. Re- 
ferences to writers on the topography of 
the city. % 55 Campi. § 56 Streets. S> 57 
Fora. "^ 58-60 Temples and groves. 
^61-63 Curife, basilicae, circuses; theatres, 
&c. % 64 Baths. ^ 65-67 Schools, por- 
ticos, columns, trophies, &c. § 68 Aque- 
ducts. Sewers, "^i 69 Monuments to the 
dead. ^70 Dwellings. §71 Villas. Sub- 
urbs. § 72-75 Thracia. § 76 Four na- 
tural divisions of Grajcia. § 77-81 Mace- 
donia. § 82-85 Thessalia. § 86-88 Epirus. 
§ 89-103 Hellas. § 104-116 Topography 
of Athens. § 104, 105 I's situation. § 106 
The Acropolis. § 107 Parthenon and 
other buildings of the citadel. '5> 108-110 
The lower city and its temples. % 111 
Porches. Odea. Ceramicus. % 112, 113 
Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. § 114 
Areopagis. Pnyx. § 115 Theatres. Gho- 
ragic monuments. § 116 Harbors. Re- 
ferences to writers on the topography of 
Athetis. § 117-125 Peloponnesus. §126- 
129 Topography of Sparta. § 126 Form 
and situation. § 127 Forum. § 128 Co- 
himns and statues. § 129 Hippodrome. 
Harbor. References to writers. §130-148 
Eitroprnn IsJa?ids. § 130-136 Britannia 
and adjoining islands. § 137 BalearicRe. 
Corsica and Sardinia. § 138-140 Sicilia. 
§ 141, 142 Ionian islands. § 143-148 
JEgean islands. 

II. Of Asia, p. 43-53. 

§§ 149-172. = § 149, 150 Extent and 
general division of Asia. § 151-155 Coun- 
tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, 
Sinae, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 
§ 156-171 Countries of the Wester?}, d.ivi- 
tion. % 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, 

a 



Iberia. § 157 Armenia. § 158-165 Asia 
Minor. § 166 Syria. Phoenicia. § 167-169 
Palaestina. §168b. 'i'opography of Jeru- 
salem. § 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia 
and Assyria. § 171 Arabia. § 172 Asia- 
tic islands. 

III. Of Africa, p. 53-57. 
§§ 173-183. = § 173 Extent and divisions 
of Africa. § 174- 176 Egypt. § 177 An- 
cient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works 
on the subject. § 178 iEthiopia. § 179 
Libya. § 180 Africa Propria. § 181 Nu- 
midia. § 182 ^Mauritania. § 183 Africa 
Interior. Atlantis. 

INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONO- 
LOGY. 

Preliminary Remarks, p. 59. 
§ 184. Importance of the subject. De- . 
sign of present sketch. Two parts. 

I. Of measuring time and adjusting its 
divisions, p. 59-63. 

§§ 185-196. = § 185 The three natural 
divisions of time ; day, month, and year. 
§ 186, 187 Ancient customs as to be- 
ginning and dividing the day. § 188 De- 
vices for marking and making known the 
parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. ^189, 
190 The month. The Grecian system. 
% 191 a, 191 b. Roman method of reckoning 
the months, and the days of the month. 
The week. Names of the days. § 192 
The year. The Grecian , Roman ; .Tu- 
lian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and 
new style. § 193 Cycles. § 194 The 
lunar cycle. § 195 The solar. § 196 The 
cycle of indiction. Julian Period. 

II. Of fixing the dates of historical 
events and arranging them in order, 
p. 63-79. 

%% 197-215. = § 197 Topics noticed in 
this part. § 198-201 Methods of ascertain- 
in g dates. 1. Successive generation.^ ; and 
successive reigns of kings. 2. Celestial 
appearances. 3. Coius, inscriptions, &c. 
4. Historical testimony. § 202, 203 Epochs 
and eras. Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ; 
the Christian ; the Mahometan ; of the 
French Republic § 204-207 Systems and 
f aides. § 204 Claims of the Earypiians and 
Babylonians. § 205 The Hebrew and 
the Septuagint chronology. Newton's. 
Usher's. § 206, 207 Various plana for 
2 V . 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



charts. The best. ^ 208-215 Actual dales, 
of most prominent events. ^208 Common 
complaint of students. Remedy. ^ 209 
Brief outline of General Chronology. % 210 
Systems of artificial memory. %2\\ Chro- 
nology of ancient states ; eight principal 



states of Asia ; references to works on iheiT 
history ; Assyrian ; Jewish ; Trojan ; Ly- 
dian; Persian; Syrian; Parthian. ^212 
Of the two principal in Africa ; Egyptian ; 
Carthaginian. ^ 213 Of Greece. ^ 214, 
215 Of Rome. 



PART II. 



MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 



Introduction, p. 83-90. 

^§ 1-12. = § 1 Circumstances calculated 
to give a fabulous character to early tradi- 
tions. % 2 Mythology in the Greek, and 
in the modern sense of the term. § 3 Dif- 
ferent points of view in contemplating my- 
thological fables. % 4 Changes and addi- 
tions in mythological stories. § 5 Different 
sources of mythological fabrications. § 6 
Advantages of an acquaintance with my- 
thology. § 7 Eastern origin of the Gre- 
cian deities. % 8 The Roman gods bor- 
rowed from the Greeks. % 9 The Greek 
and Roman system ofclassifying their gods. 
% 10 The four classes undt^r which they 
are arranged in this work. *^ 11 The no- 
tions of deity entertained by the Greeks 
and Romans. Abode of the gods. <§ 12 
References to works treating on the subject. 

I. Mythological History of the Superior 
gods, p. 91-113. 

§§ 13-67. = § 13 Gods included in this 
class. "5> 14-17 Saturn. % 18 Janus. 
% 19-21 Cvbele or Rhea. 4 22-25 Jupiter. 
<'r 26-28 Jtino. % 29-31 Neptune. § 32-34 
Pluto. § 35-37 Apollo. § 38-40 Diana. 
$ 41-43 Minerva. § 44-46 Mars. § 47-50 
Venus. Cupid. §51-54 Vulcan. §55-56 
Mercury. % 57-60 Bacchus. Silenus. 
§ 61-64 Ceres. § 65-67 Vesta. 

II. Mythological History of the Inferior 
gods, p. 113-124. 

§§68-96. = §68 Gods included in this 
class. § 69, 70 Co-his. §71, 72 Sol or Me- 
lius. §73 Luna. §74. 75 Aurora. § 76 Nox. 
§ 77 Iris. § 78 ^olus. § 79, 80 Pan. 
§ 81, 82 Latona. § 83 Themis. Asir^a. 
Nemesis. § 84 iEsculapius. § 85 Plutus, 
§ ^G Fortune. § 87 Fame. § 88 Deities 



peculiar to the Greeks. § 89-95 Deities 
peculiar to the Romans. § 90 Tiber. 
Roma. § 91. Terminus. Priapus. Ver- 
tumnus. Flora. Feronia. Pales. § 92 
Gods presiding over various conditions or 
pursuits of men. Bellona, Juturna, &c. 
§ 93 Victoria. § 94 Deified Roman em- 
perors. § 95 Vii»tues and Vices. § 96 
Egyptian deities wor.«hiped among the 
Romans. 

III. Mythical heings, whose history is 
intimately connected with that of the gods, 
p. 124-132. 

§§ 97-1 17. = § 97 Titans. § 98 Giants. 
Pygmies. § 99 Tritons. § 100 Sirens. 
§ 101 Nymphs. § 102, 103 Muses. § 104 
Graces. § 105 Hours. §106 Fates. §107 
Furies. . § 108 a. Harpies. § 108 b. Venti 
or Winds. § 109 Daemons. § 110 Manes. 
§ 111 Lares. §112 Penates. §113 Sleep 
Dreams, and Death. § 114 Satyrs and 
Fauns. § 115 Gorgons; §116 Amazons 
§ 117 Minotaur, Chimiera, and various 
other monsters. 

IV. Mythical History ef Heroes, p. 
132-137. 

§§ 118-133. = § 118 Three periods ot 
Grecian story. § 119 General cause of the 
deification of heroes. § 120 Two classes 
of venerated heroes. § 121 Inachus, Ox- 
gyges, Cecrops, and several others, ho- 
nored specially among their own people. 
§ 122 Perseus. Atlas. § 123, 124 Her- 
cules. § 125, 126 Theseus. § 127, 128 
Jason and the Argonauts. § 129 Castor 
and Pollux. § 130 Heroes of the Theban 
war. § 131 Pelops and his descendants. 
§ 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. § 133 
Deified Roman emperors. 



PART III. 



GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



GUECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction, p. 140-145. 
'J§ 1-14. = § ] Origin of the name 
Grscda. § 2 Countries included under it. 
§ 3 Most important Grecian cities. §4 Po- 
litical changes. § 5 Fir-st inhahitnnfs. § 6 
Their early intercourse. * § 7 Early forms 



of government. § 8 The Spartan system. 
§ 9 Athens. § 10 Causes of Grecian im- 
provement. § 11 Utility of study of An- 
tiquities, and of Grecian in particular. § IS 
Original sources of knowledge on the sub- 
ject. § 13 References to authors. § 14 
Defects in the common treatises on Greek 
antiquities. Early and later ages distinct 



COiMENTS. 



Vll 



I. Of the 'Earlier and less cultivated 
Ages, p. 145-160. 

^ 15 The period included Subject di- 
vided into four branches. 

I. Religious Affairs. 
§^ 16-32. = <^ 16 First traces of the reli- 
gion of the Greeks. § 17 Form and mode 
of religious instruction. ^ 18 Influence of 
Lhe poets. § 19 Number and character of 
the gods. ^ 20 Temples and sacred places. 
'^ 21 Images and statues. ^ 22 Priests 
and Priestesses. § 23 Rites; ablutions. 
§ 24 Prayers. § 25 Sacrifices ; the ma- 
terials; the origin. '^ 26 Altars. '^ 27 
Sacrifices ; the ceremonies. § 28 Gifts and 
offerings. ^ 29 Worship rendered to he- 
roes. ^ 30 Funeral solemnities. *5> 31 
Burning of corpse ; monuments. ^ 32 
Oracles and divination. 

II. Civil Affairs. 
§§ 33-41 . = § 33 Early rudeness. ^ 34 
Power of the kings. ^ 35 Their retinue 
and councillors. ^ 36 Courts of justice. 
^ 37 Laws and punishment. ^ 38 The 
Cretan laws. "Ji 39 Successive forms of 
government at Athens. '5> 40 At Sparta. 
^> 41 Commerce and Navigation. 

III. Military Affairs. 

^'^ 42-51. =§ 42 Early Greeks warhke. 
^ 43 Their armies, how composed. § 44 
Weapons; Defensive. .§ 45 Offensive. 
<5i 46 The materials of which made. '^ 47 
War-galleys. § 48 Camps. § 49 Order 
of Battle. § 50 Division of Spoils. Bar- 
oarous stripping of the slain. Combat of 
chiefs. '^ 51 Treaties. 

IV. Domestic Affairs. 

^§ 52-63 = ^ 52 Common food. Daily 
meals. ^ 53 Social repasts. § 54 Dress. 
'^ 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of 
the Hair. § 56 Houses. "5i 57 Hospitality. 
"5> 58 Employments ; agriculture ; hunting. 
§ 59 Employments of women. '^ 60 Amuse- 
ments. § 61 Marriage. § 62 Education 
of children. ^ 63 Slaves. 

II. Of the Later and more flourishing 
Ages, p. 160-223. 

I. Religious Affairs. 
^% 64-90. = § 64 Number of gods in- 
creased. § 65 a. Temples more splendid. 
^ 65 b. Alt^ivs. 'S 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 
•^v 67 Classes of priests. Purification. 'S 68 
Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. ^ 69 
Oaths. Leagues. § 70 Oracles. Im- 
posture at Argos. § 71 Oracles of Jupi- 
ter; atDodona; in Crete; African desert. 
^ 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. ^ 74 Of 
Trophonius ; of .^isculapius, and others. 
% 75 Arts and methods of divination. % 76, 
77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of 
Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. 
^ 78 Games. § 79 The race. % 80 Leap- 
ing. ^ 81 Wrestling. § 82 The discus. 
% 83 Boxing. § 84 Four sacred games. 



Olympic. ^ 85 Pythian. % 86 Nemeaa 
'5> 87 Isthmian. % 88 System of athletics. 
^ 89 Theatres, and dramatic representa- 
tions. Masks. Chorus. ^ 90 Theoric 
money at Athens. 

II. Civil Affairs. 

%% 91-134. = §91 Athens and Sparta 
distinguished by peculiarities. % 92 Draco 
and Soion at Athens. § 93 The tribes and 
classes at Athens. % 94 Pisistratus, and 
his sons. § 95 The thirty tyrants. Form 
of government after them until death of 
Alexander. § 96 Buildings of Athens. 
§ 97 The free citizens of Athens. % 98 
The foreign residents. % 99 The slaves, 
% 100 Magistrates. § 101 The Archons. 
§ 102 The Eleven ; Orators ; Ambassa- 
dors; Notaries, &c. § 103 Athenian re- 
venues. § 104 Officers of the revenue and 
treasury. Expenditures. § 105 Amphic- 
tyonic council. § 106 Assemblies of the 
people. § 107 Athenian senate. *5i 108 Areo- 
pagus. § 109 Athenian courts of justice. 
The EphetEB. MlO The HehEea. § 111 
The Forty. The Diaetetae. <^ 112 Dif- 
ferent kinds of actions. 'Ji 113 Punishments. 
§114 The Ostracism. § 115 Modes of in- 
flicting death. § 116 Public rewards and 
honors. § 117 Attic laws. § 118 Natural 
situation of Sparta. § 119 Spartan tribes. 
§ 120 Treatment of children at Sparta. 
§ 121 Spartan slaves. % 122 The kings of 
Sparta. § 123 The Senate. Ephori. § 124 
Nomophulakes and other magistrates, 
§ 125 Assemblies of the people. § 126 Pub 
lie repasts. § 127 Judicial affairs. § 128 
Punishments. § 129 Laws of Sparta. 
§ 130 Cretan consthution. % 131 Cretan 
laws; pubhc meals; slaves. § 132 Con- 
stitution of Thebes. § 133 Constitutions 
of Corinth and Syracuse. § 134 Of Argos, 
of iEtolia, and Achaia. 

III. Military Affairs. 

§135-160. = §135 The warlike character 
retained ; especially by the Spartans, § 136 
Persons hable tn military duty. Their 
support. § 137 Classes of troops. The 
infantry. §138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants. 
§ 139 Armor. § 140 Various officers. 
§ 141 The divisions of the army. § 142 
Forms of Battle-array. Mancpnvres. §143 
Declaration of war. Treaties. § 144 
Camps. § 145 Standards and ensigns. 
Signals for battle. § 146 Art of besieging. 
§ 147 MiHtary engines. § 148 Defence of 
cities. § 149 Treatment of captured places. 
§ 150 Division of spoils. § 151 Military 
rewards and punishments. § 152 Means 
of conveying intelligence. § 153 Crossing 
of rivers. § 154, 155 Ships; Names o7 
their principal parts ; Vessels of war. § 1.56 
Rowers, sailors and marines ; Manner of 
placing the seats of rowers. § 157 Instru- 
ments employed in naval battle. § 158 
Naval officers. § 159 Manner of naval 
battle. § 160 Naval victories and momi 
ments. Naval punishments. 



?U1 



CONTENTS. 



IV. Affaiks of Private Life. 
^^ -di -187. = <5> 161 Food. Use of wines. 
$ 162 The different meals. Manner of 
spending the day at Athens. ^ 163 Enter- 
tainments or feasts. '5> 164 Customs at 
table. ^165 Substances eaten at the prin- 
cipal meal. ^ 166 Officers and attendants 
at an entertainment. "^ 167 Drinking ves- 
sels. Customs in drinking. Amusements 
accompanying a feast. "^168 Customs of 
hospitality. Officers called Proxeni. Inns. 
'^ 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. 
Use of silk. Adorningof the person. ^170 
Bathing and anointing. ^ 171 Houses. 
§ 172 Commerce and Agriculture. § 173, 
174 Grecian money and coins. Ratio of 
Gold and silver. § 175 Greek system of 
notation. § 176 Grecian weights. "5i 177 
Measures. ^ 178 Social amusements. 
§ 179, 180 Music and musical instruments. 
§ 181 Condition of females. § 182 Laws 
and customs respecting marriage. §§ 183 
-186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in 
honor of the dead, with orations and games. 
''> 187 Sepulchral monuments. 

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction, p. 225-229. 
'^^ 188-198. = ^188 Origin of Rome. 
'$189 Principal events which affected the 
appearance of the city. Comparative 
splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 
§ 190 Population of Rome. ^ 191 Extent 
of the Roman empire. § 192 Proportion 
of soldiers and other citizens. % 193 The 
time of the regal government. "5' 194 Most 
briUiant era of Roman history. % 195 Con- 
dition under the emperors. § 196 Utility 
of studying Roman antiquities. Original 
sources of information on the subject. §197 
References to modern works and authors. 
5> 198 Division of the subject. 

L Religious Affairs, p. 229-248. 

§§ 199-239. =V199 Use of the term re- 
ligio. §200 Origin of the religion of the 
Romans. § 201 Its connection with poli- 
tics. § 202 Design of Romulus and Numa. 
Gods of the Romans. § 203 Temples. 
§ 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. § 205 
Altars. § 206 Vessels employed in sacri- 
fices. §207 Several orders of priests. §208 
Pontifices. § 209 Augurs. Various me- 
thods of augurv. § 210 Haruspices. §211 
Epulones. §'212 Feciales. § 213 Rex 
- 'crorum. § 214 Flamines. § 215 Salii. 

216 Luperci. § 217 Galli and others. 
§ 218 Vestal virgins. § 219 Fratres Arva- 
les, Curiones, and others. § 220 Customs 
in offering prayers. § 221 Sacrifices ar-d 
attendant rites. § 222 Vows. § 223 De- 
dication of sacred buildings. § 224 Expia- 
tions. The lustrum. §225 Oaths. §226 
Oracles. § 227 Lots. § 228 Divisions of 
time. § 229, 230 Festivals. § 231 Public 
games. § 232, 233 Ludi Cir.censes. Nau- 
machia. § 234 Ludi Seculares. § 235 
liudi Gladiaforii. § 236 Ludi Florales. 
^ 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cereales, and 



others. § 238 Theatres, Masks, &c 
§ 239 Amphitheatres. 

IL Civil Affairs, p. 248-270. 
§§ 240-274. = § 240 Regal governmen 
§241 Consuls. §242 Imperial governmem. 
§ 243 Praetors. § 244 ^Ediles. § 245 Tri- 
bunes. § 246 Quaestors. § 247 Censors, 
§ 248, 249 Extraordinary magistrates - 
Dictator ; Decemviri ; Military Tribunes ; 
Proefects. Interrex, &c. § 250 Procon- 
suls, and other provincial magistrates. §25] 
Tribes. § 252 Six classes of citizens. Cen- 
turies. § 253 Patricians and plebeians. 
§ 254 The populace. Patrons and chents 
§ 255 Roman nobiUty. Right of images 
Curule office. § 256 The Equites or 
Knights. _ § 257 The Senate. § 258, 259 
The Comitia. § 260 Right of citizenship 
Government of conquered cities and na- 
tions. § 261 Judicial proceedings. Public 
actions and trials. § 262 Private actions. 
§ 263 Penal offences. § 264 Punishments. 
§ 265 System of laws. Body of Roman 
civil law. § 266 Regulations respecting 
grain. § 267 Revenue. Saltworks. Mines. 
§ 268 Various Pursuits. Commerce. Me 
chanic arts. § 269 Agriculture. Carriages 
§ 270 .Money. Coins. § 271 System of 
reckoning and notation. § 272 Modes ol 
acquiring property. § 273 Auctions. Con- 
fiscations. § 274 Measures of extent, &c. 
Modes of determining the Roman /oo^ 

III. Affairs of War, p. 270-285. 
§§ 275-309. = § 275 Authorities on rhe 
subject. § 276 Mihtary establishment of 
the kings. § 277 Persons liable to duty. 
Time of service. § 278 Consular army. 
Exempts. § 279 System of levy. '^ 280 
Classes of troops. § 281 Subdivision into 
maniples, &c. § 282 Standards. Music. 
§ 283 Weapons. § 284 Wages. Rewards. 
§ 285 Punishments. § 286 Order of battle. 
§ 287 Modes of attack. § 288 Light troops. 
§ 289, 290 Cavalry. § 291 C( horts. §292 
Auxiliaries. § 293 Attendants upon the 
army. § 294 Order of march. §295 Forms 
of array. § 296, 297 The Camp. § 298 
Watches. Exercises of soldiers. § 299 
Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers. 
Battering ram and other engines. § 300 
Modes of defence in a siege. § 301 The 
fleets. §302 Method of naval battle. §303 
Construction and parts of Roman ships. 
§ 304 Different kinds of vessels. § 305 
Rewards of generals. § 306 Laws on the 
subject. § 307 The triumph. § 308 The 
ovation. § 309 Mihtary system under the 
emperors. 

IV. Affairs of Private Life, p. 285-304. 

§§ 310-343. =§310 The free-horn and 
\he free-made discriminated. § 31 1 System 
of applying proper names. § 312 Regula- 
tions respecting marriage. § 313, 314 
Marriage contracts. § 315 Nuptial cere- 
monies. § 316 Divorces. § 317 The righ, 
and power of the father over his children 
§ 318 Emancipation of sons. § 319 Adop' 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



tion. § 320 Legitimation. § 321 Educa- 
tion of youth. ^ 322 Slaves. ^ 323 Slave 
trade. § 324 Emancipation of slaves. 
^ 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of 
a Roman house. "5> 326 Country seats or 
villas. ^ 327 Manner of life. Morals. 
^ 328 Daily routine of employment. Bath- 
ing. V 329 Food and meals. Furniture 
for eating. <$> 330 Different courses at 
supper. Roman hospitality^ '^ 331 a. 
Drinking and games at banquets. Dice. 
>> 3316. Wines. § 332 Dress. The toga. 



§333 The tunic. Badges. § 334 Ihe 
stola and other garments of women. 
§ 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. 
'?> 336 Coverings for the head and feet. 
§ 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personaj 
ornaments. § 339 Funeral customs. Ex- 
posure of the corpse. § 340 Funeral pro- 
cessions. Eulogy. *$> 341 Burning. Place 
of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. ^ 343 
Mourning for the deceased. Games and 
sacrifices. § 343 Consecration, or deifica- 
tion of deceased emperors. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 



1. Representation of the Oracle of Apollo. 
^Facing title page.) Cf. P. III. gg 72, 73. 

2. Map of Ancient World. (Page 2.) Tlip. 
Wirld according to Ptolemy, as giveu in Mur- 
ray's Encyclopaedia of Geography. Cf. P. I. 

3. Plate I (Page 14.) Plans of Atliem aim 
Rume. See P. I. H 51-71, 104-116. 

4. Plate II. (Page 16.) The Tiber, and the 
City of Rumey symbolized. Cf. P. II. $ 90; P. IV. 
(J 226. 1. 

5 Plate III. (Page 18.) The Pantheon. Cf. 
P. I. $ 59. 

6. Plate IV. (Page 23.) Plain and Acropo- 
lis ofPhilippi. Cf P. I. $ 80. 

7. Plate IV «. (Page 30.) Ruins at Athens 
'jf the Temple of Neptune and that of Minerva 
Paiidrosos. Cf P. I. $ 107; P. III. $ 96. . 

6. Plate IV J. (Page 35.) Ruins at Corinth. 
Ct. P. I $ 120. 

9. Plate IV c. (Page 37.) Village of Mis - 
tra; near the ancient Sparta. Cf P. I. $ 126- 
129. 

10. Plate V. (Page 39.) Cabirian Temple 
at Thessulonica. Cf. P. I. $ 80; P. II. J 129. 2. 

li. Plate VI. (Page 42.) Colossal Statue 
of the Sun. Cf P. I. $ 147 ; P. II. $ 72; P. IV. 
$ 180. 1. 

12. Plate Via. (Page 45.) ralley of the 
ancient Thebarmn. Cf. P. I. $ 154 6. 

13. Plate VI &. (Page 49.) View of Broosa, 
the ancient Brusa. Cf. P, I. J 160. 

14. Plate VII. (Page 50.) Temple of Janus 
at Rome, and that of the Sun at Heliopolis. Cf. 
P. I. $ 166, $60; P. IV. $234.3. 

15. Plate VIII. (Page 55.) The Egyptian 
Sphinx, &.C. Cf P. I. $ 177 ; P. II. $ 117, $ 96. 

16. Plate Villa. (Page 58.) A Portion of the 
Peutivgerian Table. Cf. P. V. $ 497. It is pre- 
sented here as given in H. Murray's Encyclo- 
paedia of Geography (Phil. 1838, 3 vols. 4), from 
which is taken the following explanation of the 
figures and letters on the Plate; with no change 
except that of adding in parentheses the com- 
mon Latin form of some of the names. 



North Part. 



Cities. 
Siscia. 
Sardona. 

Aquinoo (Aquincum). . 
Brigantio Bregetio). 
Jadera. 

Ragadone i.Ragondo). 
Sabarie. 

Carnunto (CaruuDtum). 
Celeia. 
Viiidnbona. 
Tarsatica. 
JEmona. 
Pola. 

Silvo (Silvium). 
Parentio (P.irentium). 
Fonte-Tumaia. 
Aquileia. 
Ovilia. 

Alliiio (Altinum). 
Regino (Regina). 
Tndenle (Tridentum). 
Plarenlia. 
Aquse Populoniae. 
Florentia Tuscorum. 
Sena Julia. 
Biiuriba. 
Verona. 
Mantua. 
Mutina. 
Cosa. 

Adretio (ArretiumV 
Rivers. 
Danubius. 
DriDum. 



Cities. 

32. Bononia, 

33. Clusio (Clusium). 

34. Volsini (Vulsioii). 

35. Aquas-Passaris. 

36. Ravenna. 

37. Ariminum. 

38. Granisca. 

39. Centum Cell*. 

40. Aquas-Tuari. 

41. Ancone (Ancona). 

42. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- 

vum). 

43. Aquas-Apnllinaris. 

44. Soleto. 

45. Pollentia. 

46. Reate. 

47. CastelloFirmani (Castrum 

Firmanum). 

48. Ad Sem. Petrum. 

49. Roma. 

50. Hostis (Oslia). 

51. Chartagine (Carthago). 

52. Utica Colonii. 

53. Aquis. 

54. Ipponte Diarito. 

55. Capsa Colonia. 
56 Ad Medera. 
57. Theleote Col. 
5«. Theneste. 

.^9. Sicca-Veria.. 
60. *'' Afinas Cassiris. 
Rivers. 

a. Umbro, 

0. Pallia^ 



c. Savum. 

d. Arsia. 

e. Frigido. 

f. Liceima. 

g. Afesia. 
h. Cleusis. 
i. Unjatia. 
j. Fad us. 
k. Paala. 
I. Aninio. 
ni. tsex. 



p. Armenita. 

q. Marta. 
r. Tibeiis. 
s. Rubicon, 
t Nelurum. 
u. Malana. 
V. Miso. 
w. Flosis. 
z Tuma. 
y Nerninuir. 
z. Anio. 



South Part. 



Cities. 

1. Ad Pretorum (Praetorium 

in Pannoiiia). 

2. Servitium. 

3. Ad Pretorum (PnEtorium 

in Daliiiatia). 

4. Mursa Major. 
.S. Indenea. 

6. Tittoburgo. 

7. Ragurio. 

8. Siclis. 

9. Salona. 

10. Epetio (Epetium). 

11. Marona. 

12. Sirniium. 

13. Narona. 

14. Tauruno (Taurunum). 

15. Ad Matricem. 

16. Singiduna (Singidunum). 

17. fipitauro (Epidaurus). 
IS. .Stanedi. 

19. Lissus, 

20. Viminatio. 

21. Dyrratio (Dyrrachium). 

22. Aulnnia (Apollonia). 
23 Osa Col. 

24. Sabrata. 

25. Regio(RheglumorRegium). 

26. Caulon. 

27. Lacenium. 

28. Castra Minervae. 

29. VibonaValentia. 
30 Temsa (Tempsa). 

31. Tarento (Tarentum). 

32. Brindisi (Brundusium). 

33. Gratie. 

34. Nerulos (Nerulum). 

35. Salerno (Salernum). 

36. Nuceria. 

37. Oplontis. 

38. Benevento (Beneventum). 

39. Venusia. 

40. Neapnii (Neapolis). 

41. Ca|)ua. 

42. Cnmas (Cumae). 

43. Sylla. 

44. Aeras. 

45. Prelonium Laucrianum. 

46. Siponto (Sipontum). 

47. Esernie. 

48. Teano Scedicino(Teanum 

Sidicinum). 

49. Sinuessa. 

50. Miniurnis (Minturnae). 

51. Fundis (Fundi). 

52. Terracina. 

53. Ferenlinum. 



Cities. 
54. Febralerie. 
5s. Istonum. 
5(5. Corfinio (Corfininm). 

67. Marrubio (Marrubium). 

68. Tres Tabernas. 

b9. Carsulis (Carseoli?). 

60. Oslia .aiterni. 

61. Pinna. 

62. Castro-Novo (Castrum No 

vum, OD the Hadriatic). 

63. Praeneste. 

64. Roma. 

65. Hostis (Ostia). 

66. Chartagine (Carthago). 

67. JVtaxula. 

68. All Aquas. 

69. Misua Clipeis. 

70. Gurra. 

71. Ad Horrea. 

72. Lepteminus(Lepti5M'nofl 

73. Thiforo Col. 

74. Ad Aquas. 

75. Taparura (Tapnrura). 

76. Tacape. 

77. Drepanis (Drepanum). 

78. Lilybeo (Lilybceum). 

79. AgrJgento (Agrigentum). 

80. Sir.icusis (Syracusae). 

81. JE^DTL Mens. 

82. Messana. 

. Kivers. 

a. Danubius. 

b. Driuum. 

c. Savum. 

d. Margum. 

e. Genesis (Genusus) 

f. Hapsum (Apsus). 

g. Tanno. 
h. Crater, 
i. Silarum. 
j. Color. 

k. Aveldium. 
1. Aufidenus, 
n). Larinum. 
n. Clocoris. 
o. Sannum. 
p. Creniera. 
q. Nernum. 
r. Arno. 
8. Tiberis. 
t. Safe. 
u. Vulturnus. 
V. Himera. 
\v. Niranus. 
X. Ausere. 
y. Gerin. 



18. Plate IX. (Page 62.) Symbolic Repre- 
sentations of the Seasons. Cf. P. I. $ 191 a ; P. 
IV. $ 188.2; P. II. $ 105. 

19. Plate IX «. (Page 80.) View of Athens, 
from the foot of Mt. Anchesmus ; reduced from 
Hobhouse's Albania. Cf P. I. $ 105. 

20. Plate X. (Page 82.) Mythological Illus- 
trations.— ¥\g. 1. Saturn; cf P. II. $ 14-17.— 
Fig. 2. Cybele; cf P. II. $ 19-21.— Fig. 3. Pluto; 
cf P. II. $ 32-34.— Fig. 4. Vulcan ; cf P. II. 
J 51-54.— Fig. 5. Neptune : cf P. II. $ 29-31.— 
Fig. 6. Venus, with attendants ; cf P. II $ 47- 
49.— Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. II. $ 38-40.— Fig. 8. 
Bacchus ; cf. P. II. $ 57-60. 

21. Plate XI. (Page 92.) Mythological lU 
lustratiovs.—F\fi. I .Iiino; cf P. II. $ 26-28.— 
Fig. 2. Meniirv; cf P. II $ 55. 56 —Fie. 3. .Tu 
piler ; ( f P. ll". J 22-25.— Fig. 4. Apollo; cf P 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



XI 



II. $ 35-37.— Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. II. $ 61-64 — 
Fig 6 Minerva; cf. P. II. $ 41-43.— Fig. 7. Mars; 
cf P. II. $ 44-46 —Fij; 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. $ 18. 
—Fig. 9. Cupi^l ; cf. P. II. $ 50.— Fig. 19. Vesta ; 
cf. P". II. $ 65-67. 

22 Plate XII. (Page 97.) I'lie Hindoo 
Triad. Cf P. II. $ 25. 4. 

23. Plate XIII. (Page 103.) The Avatars 
of Vishnu. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4; $ 37. U. 

24. Plate XIII a. (Page 111.) Festival of 
JuTgernaut. Cf P. II. «J 59. 4. 

25. Plate XIV. (Puge 121.) Mythological 
Illustrations.— F\^.. 1. Sol, as represented on a 
coin of the Rhndians ; cf. P. II. $ 71-72 —Fig.^2. 
Nox, as represented on a gem; cf. P. II. $ 76. 
—Fig. 3. Luna; cf P. II. $ 73.— Fig. 4. Hehe ; 
P. II. $ 27.— Fig. 5. Flora; cf P. II. $ 90. 4m.— 
Fig 6. .(Esculapius: cf. P. II. $ 84.— Fig. 7. 
Pan ; cf P. II. $ 79.— Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope ; 
cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P. II. 
$ 86.— Fig. 10. Victoria ; cf P. II. $ 93.— Fig. 11. 
Concordia ; cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 12, Pa.\, or 
Peace ; cf P. II. $ 95. 

26. Plate XV. (Page 124.) Representations 
from the Mac Table. Cf. P. II. $ 96. 

27. Plate XV a. (Page 138.) Table of Greek 
and Ro?iian Deities classified Cf. P. II. $ 9, 10. 

28. Plate XVI. (Page 140) Crowns, Gar- 
lands, i^c— Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Roman crowns or 
wreatiis, bestowed as military rewards. Fig. 

6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. III. $ 284. 1.— Figs. 

7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands received by vic- 
tors in the games; ct. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233.— 
Fig. A. Plan of a Gymnasium or Palaestra after 
Vitruvius, as given in Burthele-ny's Anachar- 
sis : cf P. IV. $ 236.— Fig. B. Victorious cha- 
rioteer; cf. P. III. $ 233.— Fig C. A golden 
crown found in Ireland ; cf. 1 . III. i> 34. 

29. Plate XVII. (Page 155.) Military Wea- 
pons, ^c. For particulars, see P. III. §$ 45, 137, 
283. 

30. Plate XVIII. (Page .161.) Tombs arid 
Sepulchral Remains. —F\g^. 1, 2, 3. Tomb of Cy- 
rus, Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid of Cestius; 
cf. P. III. $ 187. 5.— Fig. 4. Gates of a tomb; cf. 
P. III. i> 187. 5.— Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatoiy 
and ungnentary vases; cf. P. III. $ 341. 7. — 
Fig. B. Egyptian Psychostasy, or weighing of 
the soul; cf. P. II. $ 34b. 4.— Fig. e. Funeral 
couch; ct. P. III. $ 340. 1.— Fig. hh. Coffin and 
urns, &c.; cf P. III. $ 341. 6. 

31. Plate XIX. (Page 166.) Oracle uf Tro- 
phonius. Cf. P. HI. $ 74. 

32. Plate XX. (Page 168.) Representa- 
tions of Priests and Priestesses presenting Liba- 
tions and Sacrifices. Cf. P. I H. $ 24, $ 221. 

33. Plate XXI (Page 179.) Temples.— 
Fig. 1. Parthenon; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. IV. 
$ 234. 3, P. I. $ 107.— Fig. 2. Temple of the 
Winds; cf P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 110.— Fig. 3. 
Temple of Theseus; cf P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 109. 
-^Fitrs. a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h. Ground-plans of the 
diff.-rent kinds of temples ; cf. P. IV. $ 234. 2. 

34. Plate XXII. (Page 195.) Various Jlrti- 
cles of .^rmor.— Figs, a, b,c, &c. Helmets; cf. 
P. HI. $45. — Figs, r, s. Mail and breastplate; 
cf. P. HI. $ 45, 139.- Fig. M. Greaves; cf. P. 
HI. $ 44, 45.— Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian warriors; 
cf. P. HI. $ 45.— Fig. 3. Persian warrior; cf. 
P. HI. $ 45.— Fig. 4. Trophy ; cf. P. HI. $ 150.— 
Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with an armor-bearer; 
cf.P. HI. $ 283.— Fig. 6. Egyptian archer; cf. 
P. HI. $ 45, $ 288. r.— Fig. 8. Soldier in com- 
plete n.Hil; cf P. HI. $263. 

35. Plate XXIII. (Page 201.) JK-aval Jllus- 
trafions. — Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat fur rapid 
moving; cf. P. HI. $304.— Fig. 2. Vessel from a 
psiiuing at Pompeii ; cf. P. HI. $ 304.— Fig. 3. 
Liburnian galley; cf. P. HI. $ 304.— Fig. 4. 
Merchant vessel; cf. P. HI. $ 155.— Fig. 5. 
War-galley; cf. P.HI. $ 155.— Fig. A. He\i- 
reme as explained by Holwell ; cf P. III. $ 155, 
156.— Fig. H. Views of the relative position of 
the rowers, according to the explanations of 



some ; cf P. HI. $ 156. — Figs, a, b, c. Different 
forms of prows : cf P. HI $ 155 3, 4. 

36. Plate XXIV. (Page 205.) Periainirig 
to Hojisehold .Affairs. — Fig. 1. Plan of a Grecian 
house; cf P. III. $171. 1.— Fig: 2 \ Grer.ian 
key ; cf. P. HI. * 171. 2.— Fig. 3. Young mau 
wearing the petasus ; cf. P. HI. 169. 3. — Fig. 4. 
A bride sitting with a mirror held before her; 
cf. P. HI. $ 169. 6. $ 171. 2.— Figs. 5 and 10. 
Grecian sofas; cf. P. HI. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 6. Pe- 
culiar head-orr»ainent, worn in oriental coun- 
tries ; cf. P. HI. $ 34.— Fig. 7. Grecian ladv, 
from Bos^d's Potter; cf P. HI. $ 169. 5 ; $ 171. 2. 
-Figs. 8, 9. Chairs ; cf. P. HI. $ 171. 2. $ 52.— 
Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various forms of coverings for 
the feet; cf. P. HI. $ 169. 2; $ 336. 

37. Plate XXV. (Page 211.) Costume.— 
Figs, a, b, c, d. Modern Egyptian and oriental 
dresses; e, /, Greek Bacchantes, ^, an Egyp- 
tian spinner; A, i, Grecian female fluters ; k, 
Grecian lady in the more ancient costume; ?«, 
peculiar head-dress; n, o, Egyptian princess 
and priestess in transparent garmenis ; y, w, 
veils and head-dresses. See P. HI. $ 169. 5. — 
Fig. 1. A box worn on the neck: cf. P. HI. 
$ 337. — Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Egyptian 
monuments ; figs. 3, 4, toilet-table and mirror ; 
cf P. HI. $ 338. 

38. Plate XXV a. (Page 215.) Tubhs of 
Grecian Moneys, &c. Cf P. HI. $$ 173-177. 

39. Plate XXVI. (Page 219.) Mn.-ical In- 
strumevts. For particulars see P. HI. $ 180. 

40. Plate XXVI a. (Page 224.) Tabular 
view of Civil Institutions uf Athens. Cf P. HI. 
$$97-116. 

41. Plate XXVII. (Page 231.) Jilt ars and 
Sacrificial .Apparatus. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various 
articles as given in Monifaucon; fig. A. including 
1, 2, &c., articles drawn from sculpture at Pom- 
peii; fig. B, representation of a sacrifice, from 
the same source ; cf. P. 111. $ 206. — Fig. C. Sa- 
crifice to Bacchus; cf. P. HI. $ 205. 1; $67. — 
Fig. D. Sacred utensils from Egyptian re- 
mains; rf P. HI. $ 206. 2.— Figs. E, H, Altars; 
cf. P. HI. $205. 1. 

42. Plate XXVHI. (Page 236.) Priests and 
Priestes.^es. Cf. P. HI. $ 219; P. II. $ 67 m ; 
P. V. $ 16. 

43. Plate XXIX. (Pagt^ 240.) The Snuve- 
taurilia, from an ancient bas-relief. Cf. P. HI. 
$ 224. 2. 

44. Plate XXX. (Page 245.) Gladiatorial 
Contests. — Fig. 1, two uvdabaice or horsemen; 
fig 2, a horseman and footman (cf P. HI. 
$ 283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on tool ; fig. 5, 
wounded bull; fig. 6, two secutures and two 
retiarii: see P. HI. $235. 2, 3.— Fig. 7. Plan of an 
amphitheatre at Pompeii; cf P. HI. $ 239. — 
Fig. n. A Dacian horseman in scale-armor; cf. 
P. HI. $ 283. 

45. Plate XXXI. (Page 255.) Pertaining 
to topics noticed under the head of Roman Civil 
.Affairs. — Figs. 1 and 3. Roman fasces, and 
Egyptian scepters; cf P. III. $ 240 1 — Figs. 2 
and 9 Roman official chairs; cf P. III. $ 255. 
2.— Figs. 4, 5, 6. Chariots ; cf. P. HI. $ 269. 3.— 
Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight ; cf P. HI, 
$270. 1.— Fig. 10. Sedan; cf. P. HI. $ 255. 2.— 
Fig. A, a kind of stoc-ks ; fig. B, the Mamerline 
prison at Rome ; rf P. HI. $ 264. 1. 

46. Plate XXXIl. (Page 265.) Pertaining 
to housthohl and Jla riciiltural .Affairs. — Fig. 1, 
plan of a Roman hnuse ; figs, a and b. a key 
and bolt from Pom|)eii ; cf P HI $ 325. 6.— 
Fig. c, Egyr)tian door; cf P. IV. $ 231. I.— Fig. 
(/, Couch ; fig. E (including 1, 2. 3, &c.), Lamps ; 
cf P. Ill $ 325 7.— Fig ii. Roman plow; fig. 
iii. Syrian [ilows; figs iv. 6, 7, instruments 
for threshing ; figs. 5, 8, sickle, pruning-knife 
&c. See P. III. $269. 2. 

47. Plate XXXII//. (Page 269.) Tables of 
Roman Movevs. S^-c. Cf P. HI. $ 271, $ 274. 

48. Plate XXXIII (Page 273.) Jirmnr,Aft. 
litary Standards, d^-c. — Figs. 1 and 2. Legionai* 



Xll » DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 

soldiors with shield and sword, baggage, &c. i of a consular camp; R, sectional view of the 
of. P. III. J 283. — Fig. 3. A Medo-Persian, from ag^er and fossa ; see P. III. $ 197 1. 
sculptures iit Pe>-se[)i)lis; hearing a sort of ham- I 50. Plate XXXV. (Page 301.) Pertaining 
iner, or l>attle-a,\, probably a token of some | to Feasts and the use of (Vive. — Fig. I. Plan 
military rank, perhaps however of some civil ! and view of a triclinium fonnd at Pompeii; of 



otficH ; the two hands nf another are seen bear- 
ii g the same token; fig. 4, another tVom the 
sculptures at Persepolis, with a sword and 
other arcouternients. Cf. P. IV. $ 171. — Figs. 
A. H, C, &c. A variety of standards and flags ; 
cf. P. III. $ 282. 1.— Fig. E. Part of the tri- 
nniphal procession represented on the Arch of 



P. III. $ 329. 2.— Fig. 2, carriage and vessel foi 
transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera, used in 
libations ; cf. P. 111. $ 331 b.— Fig. 4. Two per- 
sons interchanging the pledge of hospitality; 
cf P. 111.$ 330^ 3.— Fig. 5, a Bacchanal revel- 
ing alone, taken from ren»ains at Poenpeii ; fig 
6, a wine press, from Egyptian monumetits ; 



'funs ; cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2. ; fig. 7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cms t ; figs 

49. Platk XXXI V. (Page 279.) War-en- | a, b, c, d, e, f, &.C., various cups and vessels; 
rines, Roman Camp, .^•c.— Fig. 1, tesiudo ; fig. 2, ' cf. P; 111. $ 331 b. 

vivecE ; 3, movable tower; 4, 5, 10, batleriiig- j 51. Pl.4TE XXXVI. (Page 302.) Monnmen- 
ram ; 6, scurpia ; 7, balista ; 8. pluleus; 9,fiilx ^ tal Structure, dedicated to the IJii Manes ^ Re- 
viuralis ; see P. 111. $ 299.— Figs. a. b. Archer presentations of Death, ^c. Cf. P. II. $$ 76, 83 
and slinger; cf. P. 111. $ 288. 1.— Fig. P, plan ! 110, 113. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from 
£he author and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section 
always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always 
denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered 
so as to differ more or less from the original. All the matter in the largest of the 
four sizes of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as 
may have one or the other of those marks. All the matter in the smaller type is added 
by the translator, with the following exceptions: (1) sections or paragraphs having 
the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Eschen- 
burg; and (2) part of the mere references to books and authors, a majority perhaps 
of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not seem of much con- 
.«equence to discriminate carefully between those given by the author and those 
introduced by the translator; if any one should find some of them irrelevant or un- 
important, he may safely charge such upon the translator rather than Eschenburg. 

In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one 
place to another; and the division into Parts, sections, and sub-sections, all sepa- 
lately numbered, makes the reference very easy; thus, e. g. the abbreviations cf. P. III. 
§ 182. 4. direct the reader to the paragraph numbered 4, under section 1^2, in Part 
III. Instead of the word see, or the abbreviation v. (for the Latin vidc\, the abbre- 
viation cf. (for the Latin confer^ is commonly used. In order to facilitate the turn- 
ing to any passage, the number of the Part is continued as a sort of running title 
on the top of the even or right-hand page; in following the reference above given, 
e. g. the reader will first turn to Pattt III., denoted by P. III. seen at the top of the 
right-hand page; then, under that Part, will look for § 182; then, under that sec- 
tion, look for the paragraph numbered 4. Whenever the section to which a reference 
is made belongs to the same Part with the section in which the reference is made, 
the abbreviation for the Part is omitted ; thus, e. g. the abbreviation cf. § 3, occurs 
on p. 40 in § 136 of Part I., and it directs the student to § 3 of the same Part I. In 
some instances i sub.section is itself divided ; thus, cf P. III. § 268. 4. (c), directs to 
the paragraph marked (c), under the subsection 4. in § 268, of P. III. The references 
made to the Plates need no explanation, except the remark that the abbreviation Sup. 
always indicates one of the Supplemental Plates, contained in a separate volume. 

A copious Index was essential to accomplish the design of this book; and in order 
to secure greater copiousness, and at the same time give the student the advantage 
of a very obvious and useful classification, four distinct Indexes are furnished at the 
close of the work: an Index of Greek Words,- an Index of Latin Words; a Geo- 
graphical Index ; and a General Index ; besides which, the Contents (in a systema. 
tic view prefixed to tht l>o(ly of the work) are exhibited so fully, that the inquirer 
may easily ascertain in what section any topic is noticed. When one seeks informa- 
tion on a particular point from this volume, he is requested not to conclude that it 
contains nothing on the subject, until he has carefully examined the Indexes, the 
Statement of Contents, and the Description of Plates. 



PAET 1. 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGy. 



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EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOdRAniY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

^1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of" the neighboring coun 
.ries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of ihe Odyssey were withui a lew 
hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition furnishes a still 
stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are de.-cribed as having departed by the 
Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules ; 
whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that tnere was a 
connection between the Palus Maeotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. In those early 
ages the earth was supposed to be a great plain, and the ocean an immense stream 
which flowed around it and thus returned back '.nto itself {dipoppnui). 

In later times, however, the commercial eiitprpri?e of the Athenians corrected these errors 
Tlieir ships sailed throueh the seas to the east of Europe and brought home such accurate infor- 
mation, that we find the description of these seas and the neigiihoring coasts nearly as perfect in 
ancient as in modern writers. — 'I'he expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the Anabasis 
of Xenophon (cf. P. V. ^243), and still more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opporl unities of 
becoming acquainted with the distant regions of the east. — The west of Europe was visited and 
described by the PhcEnicians, who had penetrated even to the British Ishinds. 

^ 2. All the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients was emboc-en, 
in the second century after Christ, in two principal work? by Claudius Ptolemy ; one 
styled iM^yiiA*? SilvTa^t?, and the other TeajyoaipiKT] 'Yq)fiyri(Tii. From the latter we de 
rive our chief information respecting the Umits of the ancient world, and the attain- 
ments of the Greeks and Romans in geography. (Cf. P. V. §§ 206, 207, 216, 218, 
480—483.) 

^ 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an imperfect 
sketcii of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched deserts of Africa 
prevented their advance to the south ; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known 
world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these lim.its 
were perfectly known; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there 
were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name. 

Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth 
that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Perm, one of the Insvlm FnrtuvattB 
(Canary Islands^, which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy 
for his fixed meridian. Our line extendinsr hence nnrtherly would include the British Isles and 
the Shetland Isles ; the latter are proliably designated by ihe T/iule of the ancienis, accoi-iing 
to d'Anville, althoush some have supposed it was af)plied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles 
^ne line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably: perhap* around the \orlh C:i| e, a.s 
it has been thouiiht that this must be the Rubeas Promnntorimn of Ptolemy. The line wouid, in 
either case, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be 
descrihpd by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it woul I extend to the TTral Moun- 
tains, which were jiartially known bv the name of Hyperburei ; near which the [ioets located a 
people of the same name {T^ircr. Georg. i. 240), said to live in all possible felicity. From these 
mountains tlfe line would pass alone through Scytliia to the northern part of the Beliir Tag 
mountains, ihe ancient Tmnus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Karl: gar (in Chinese Tar- 
tary), called by Ptolemy Casio Rei/in ; a region of which, however, he evidently knew litll'». 
Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera; which is most pro- 
b ibly the modern Kan or Kan-trlienu, near the north-west corner nf China and the terr.;inafion 
of the immense wall Sf parating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must he carried over 
a reg\on, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thyv(F in the country of 
the Sints; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the Semi'*, which is siipposed i. 
be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterlj 
p >int (that is particularlv mentioned) is thought to be Point Covd.ir, th- southern extremity 
of Cambodia; this was called the Promovtnriuni Satyrnrnm. s.\u\ s.ime .small isles adjacent Tn 
sidcB Sat7iri)rum, because monkevs were found here, whose appearance resembled the fableO 
Satvrs. The general ignorance resp-^cting this region is obv'ous from the fact, that it was ima- 
gined, that beyond Ihe Pmwnntor,/ nf Snt'ijrs t>.e coast turopo ..rst to the south, and ll'jn com- 
pletely to the "west, and ttins proceeded until it joined .Africa. From the point oi cape jii9t 
named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Jiurea Chersonesus, or peninsiil.i o( 
Malaya or M.-iIacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jab/ulii fnsula. and pass tt 
T^vrobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence swijeping around the .Maldives, called "ly P'r 

3 



4 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

lemy fnsul(r ante Taprobanaw, and crnssing the equator, it vvniild strike Africa at Cape Delgrado. 
Biipposed t.T corret5p<)nd to the l^raginn Proiinnituriuiii, I.eiiifr ahoiil 10 decrees S. laiiliide. 'I iie 
boundary would exclude Ma^ugascar, as the ancient JV/eHM///u;,s(lesij,'Mates, not Madnj^ascar aw 
has been conjectured, but rnnst probably the ino<lern Zans^iiiar. ll may be irn[>ossi(»le to irace 
{he line across Africa ; of the interior nf which the ancients knew ;tn)re liian one vvouhi suppose, 
judfring from the i<;noranre of the nnxlerns on the subject. The line would pass south of the 
Mountains of the Moon, /-«««■ >/'/r//e.s, wiiic'h are tnentioned by IMolciny ; am! also, in part, of 
the river Niiier, which, as d\'ivville remarks, was km>wn even in the time of Herodotus. On 
the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape rtl Ann's, about 
JO deL'rees N. latitude; this point ansvverinj: to the ancient JVi/^e Cnrnu, Souttiern Horn, otl' 
against which lay the islands called lusulie. Hcsperiduni. From this cape our line passes up the 
shore of the Atlantic to the InmiUv Ftntuiiatw. 

From this it is obvious, that the pnrtion oC the earth known to the ancients was small in pro- 
portion to the whol^-. It has been said, with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one- third 
of the lavd, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles : and of 
the 155 millions of square miles of loater, cov«iriiig the rest of the globe, they knew almost no- 
thing. 

On tlie knowledge of the ancien's respecting the earth, Class. Journ. v. 103. ix. 133. For the principal helps in studying Clis- 

Mcal Geography, consult the references given in P. V. ^ 7. 7 (6) ; see also P. V. ^^ 206-208, 371 ss. — On the history of Geography, 
rf. P. IV. § 27. 

§ 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is 
of very ancient date ; but although the t'lames have been preserved, the boundariea 
in several particulars difiered. Egypt was lornierly reckoned among the Asialic 
kingdoms: at. present it is esteemed part of Airica : 3armatia was esteemed part of 
Europe : a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia. 

§ 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the ancients 
believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat 
of the Torrid and the extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal' lite. 

Another division, intrf)duced by Hipparchiis, was that of climates. A climate is a space in- 
cluded betweeti two purallnls of latitude, so that the longest days of the itihabitants at oiip 
extremity e.vceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were 
ktiown. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexamiria in 
Ei-'ypt, Carthage, Alexatidria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and 
the British Islatids. 

NO'IE — 111 studyiig this Epitome, it is iiidis|)ensable to success that some Atlas should be used. That of Butler is very suitabls 
for the purpose. The editor of this Manual has it in contemplation to prepare an Atlas adapted to the Epitome of Ge<>graphy hers 
jiretented. — The student need not commit to memory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of th^ 
countries or provinces included m the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, tracing every thing, as far as possible, 
on his maps For recitation, let Uie Teacher question hini on the maps of the Atlas, or on large maps in mere outline, prepared fo« 
the purpose, which will be far better. 



I. OF EUROPE. 



^ 6. EtJROPE, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most import- 
ant division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and 
sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed 
over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its name from Europa, the 
daughter of Agenor. a FhcBnician king, who being earned away, according to the 
mythological tales (P. II. § 23), by .lupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her 
name to this quarter of the globe. 

^ 7. The boundaries of ancient Europe were nearly the same as those of modern 
Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of 
Europe. The northern o;:ean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saiurnian. bounds it 
on the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is 
traced by ancient writers; the reiniinder of i^s eas'ern boundaries are the Pains 
Maeotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus. Euxine sea, Thrat-ian Bosphorus, Propontis, Helles- 
pont, and iEgean sea; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic ocean 
the wes'ern boundary. 

^ 8. The countries -of the MAtNt-AND of Europe may be arranged, for convenience, 
in the present geographical sketch, in three divisions; the northern, middle, and 

southern. The !si,a.vds may be considered in a separate division. The north of 

Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients until the unwearied 
arribition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new conquests in lands previously 
unnoticed. From these countries, in after times, came the barbarian hordes who 
overran Europe, and punished severely the excessps of Roman ambition. — The 
southern division contains the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most dis 
tmguisiied in Europe for their civilization and relineinent. 

The. i^f M'f hern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the follow 
no Rr:t iN^otNAViA, iVorwa?/ and Sweden; Chersonesus Cijvibrica, /(tf/aMi^, or Den 



P 1. 'i;UROPE. NORTHERX COUNTRIES. . \i 

mark; Sarm'TIA, F.ussia ; Ger^iama, Germany. — The Middle countries were 
the following. Gai.ua, Fra?ice and Sv^iizerland ; Vixdelicia, Suabia ; Rh.t;tia. 
rciuntry oi /h Grisofis ; Noricum, Austria; Pa^vxcxta, Hungary; Illyricu.m, 
Craalia and i^alnuitia ; M^sia. Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria ; Dacia, Transylvania 
and Wala(h a. In th/; Southern division we include Hispaxia, Spain and Porlu- 
g'll ; It^j a, f.fily ; Thracia, Macedonia, and Gr.ecia, all lately comprehended 
under iJiP fw i\sh Empire. 

I. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

^ 9. SjANriNAVTA, or Scandia. by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely supposed 
to be a large island. The inhabi:ants were remarkable for their number and ferocity 
they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country came the Goths, 
the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the Normans, who subjugated the 
Bourh of Europe. 

% 10. The Chcrionesus Cimbrica. a large peninsula at the entrance of the Baltic, 
was the native co'^nlry of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after devastating Gaul 
invaded the ncr*njrn part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the safety of 
their capital. They defea'ed the consuls Manlius and Servilius with dreadful slaugh- 
ter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius. 

^11. Sarmat.a included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is frequently 
confotmded with Scythia. "^I'his immense territory was possessed by several inde- 
pendent tribes', who led a wandering life like the savages of North America. The 
names of the principal tribes were the Sauroma'ae. near the mouth of the Tanais, 
and the Gcloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and the Borysthe/ies. The latter 
were called Hamaxohii from their living in wagons. Virgil gives them the epithet 
■picli, because they, like the savages of America, painted their bodies to give them- 
selves a formidable appearance. — From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and 
Roxolanians, who aided the barbarians formerly meniioned C^s 8) in overthrowing the 
Roman empire. 

The peninsula, now known by the narne of the Crimea, or Crini Tartary, was 
anciently called the Chersonesus Tat^rica. Its inhabitants, called Tauri, were 
remarkable for their cruelry to strangers, whom thev sacrificed on the altar of Diana. 
From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was called Euxine {favorable 
to stra7igers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The principal towns of the Tauric 
Chersonese were Pantieapcpum (Kerche). where Mithridates the Great died; Saphioe 
(Procop), and T/ieodosia (KafFa). — At the south of this peninsula, was a large pro- 
montory, called from its shape Criu-Metopon. or the Ram's Forehead. 

^ 12. Ancient Germany. Germaxia. is, in many respects, the niost singular nnd 
interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, and the 
accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, the origin of the 
English language and consritu*ion may be distinctly traced. The inhabitants called 
themselves fFer-men, which in their language signifies War-men, and from this 

hoas'-ing designa'ion the Romans named them, with a slight change, Gcr-men. 

The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately ascertained, but the name is 
generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the 
Baltic Sea and the Danube. 

§ 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia. possessed by several tribes, of whom 
the principal were the Hermiones and Snevi, who possessed the middle of Germany. 

■ The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. The 

chief of these were the Fr/.«//. through whose country a canal was cut by Drusus, 
• which being increased in the course of time formed the present Zuyder Zee ; the. 
Cherusci. who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions of Quintiliua 
Varus; the Sicambri, who were driven across the Rhine by the Catti, in the lime of 
Augustus; the Catti. the most warlike of the German nations, and most irreconcila 
ble to Rome ; the ^Inrcomanni . who were driven afterwards mto Bohemia by tht. 
Al.lemonni, from which latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allemagne 

Near the Elbe were the AnsH and Saxnnes. progenitors of the English, and tlu 

Longobardi. who founded the kincrdom of Lombardy. in the north of Italy. Tlie 
nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii. s'eadfast allies of the Romans ; the ^lar 
comanni. who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine; tho Narisci 
and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during: the reign of Marcus 
Aureli'is. 

"^ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses was 
forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, forts built bv 

the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives A great part of German) 

was occupied by tiie Ilercynian forest, which expended, as was said, nine days' jout 
poy from south to north, and more than sixty from west to east. A portirin of tin 
SyJva Hercynia is now called the Black Foreat, which still has its fabled terrors. 

^ 1.5. The largest river in the northern division of Europe was the Ehn, now Won^u 
It was called Atel or Etel bv the Bvzantine write. = ,P. V. ^ ?39a) mi others in 'h". 



'#• 



, CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

middle aj^es. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with more water formerly than now 
mto the Mare Caspiuvi. It was in part ihe eastern boundary ol Europe, separating 
Sarmatia trom Scythia. — "^1 he river next in size was the Borysl/it?ies, called in the 
middle ages Danapris, whence its modern name Dnieper. Just at its entrance into 
[heFonius Euxinus,\i was joined by the i/(i/;;aw/s, called in the middle ages Bogus, and 
now the Bog. The long narrow beach ai the mouth of the Borysthenes was called 
Drcmuft Achillfi. — Between the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Taiiais, the 
prtsent Don, which separated Sarmaiia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, and flowed 
mto the Falus Mocotis or modern sea of Azoi ; near its mouth was a city of extensive 
commerce, called Tanais Emporium. The strait connec ting the Palus Maeotis with 
the Euxine was called Bosphorus Cimrnerius. — Another river dischargiiig into tlie 
Pontus Euxinus, was the Tyras, the modern Dniester: it flowed between Sarmatia 
and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boundary of what is included in our 
northern division of Europe.-— Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyras, 
flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus Codanus ; they were the 
Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal streams discharging 
into the Oceanus Germanicus were the Aihis, Elbe, and the Ehenus, Rhine, which 
formed the western boundary of the division of Eurooe now under notice, dividing 
Germania and GaUia. 

II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE MIDDLE OF EUROPE. 

^ 16. We will begin with Gallia, which is at the western extremity of the division 
The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalp.na, to distinguish it from 
the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The Greeks gave it the name 
of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, to distinguish it from- Galatia ui Asia 
Minor, where the Gauls had planted a colony. 

Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flanders, Hol- 
land, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its boundaries were the 
Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the 
Pyrenees. — The country, in the time oi Juhus Caesar, was possessed by three great 
nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. Of these the CelfcB .y,vere the 
most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached from the Sequa?ia, Seine, to the 
Garumna, Garonne ; the Belgce lay between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where 
they united with the German tribes ; the Aquitani possessed the country between 
the Garumna and the Pyrenees. 

<5) 17. Augustus Csesar divided Gaul into four provinces; Galha Narhonensis, Aqut 
tauia, Gallia Celtica, and Btigica. 

Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea 
coast irom the Pyrenees to the Alps; including the terrhory of the modern provinces, 
Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the prin- 
cipal of which were the Allohroges, Salyes, and Volcag. The principal cities were 
Narho Marlins, the capital, (Narbonne) ; Massilice (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian 
colony, from Phocaea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii (Frejus) ; Aqucs Sexlice (Aix) ; and 
Nemausus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grand :inr of its still existing 
remains. 

Among Ihe interestin; monuments at Nismes are, tlie Square House, and the Jirena; the latter being an anijihitheatre, or circus, 
of the Doric order, with walls composed of enormous masses of stnne r.nited with wonderful skill, 1200 feet in circumference, i-apable 
of holding, it is said, 16,000 or 17,000 persons ; the former, a temple, 76 feet long, 38 broad, and 42 high ; adorned with 30 beautiful 
Corinthian columns. (Cf. Seyna and Menard, cited P. IV. § 243. 3. — Millin, Voyage dans les Dcpartements du Midi.) 

Aquitani a extended from the Pyrenees to the Ligcr (Loire). The principal 
nations were the Tarbelh, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pictones, and 
Lemovices, north of that river. The chief towns were Mediolanuvi (Saintes) ; 
Forties Sanlonum (Rochelle) ; and Tlxellodunum. 

Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — The 
country along the coast was called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce 
and warlike. — 1 he principal nations were the Segusiani, ^dui, Mandubii, Parish, and 
Rhcdones. The prircipal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius 
Flancus after the dea*h of Julius Caesar; Bihracte, cdWedi afterwards A ugustoditmim 
(Autun) ; Alesia (AHse), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms of Cassar; and 
Partus Brivates (Bres*), near the Promontorium GobcBum (Cape St. Malo). 

Lutelia Par islnrn m (Paris) was built by the Parisii, on a swampy island, before Ihe time nf Christ, but was of no iniportanc* 
Hntr. A. I). 360. when the Emperor Julian went into winter quarters there, and erected a palace for himself. 

The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. This contained 
a grea+ number of powerful states; the Helvptii occupying that part of modern Swit- 
zerland included between Lacus Lemanus (the lake of Geneva) and Locus Brigmiti' 
nus (the lake of Constance) \ the Sequojii. possessing the present province of Franche 
''omte ; and the Bafavi, who inhabited Holland. — -That part of Belp;ic Gaul adj >ining 
ho Rhine l>el 'W Helvetia was called G er m a nia, from the nun:ber of (ierraan tribes 



p. I. EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. V- 

who had settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, tlie part nearer the 
sources of the Rhine, B.nd Inferior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal 
of these tribes were the Treveri, Ul)ii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country of tae 
Treveri was the extensive forest Ar(luen7ia (Ardennes), traces of which still remain. 

^ 18. The princijal mountrins of Gaul were Gehenna (the Cevennes), in Langue- 
doc ; Vogesus (the Vauge), in Lorraine; and Alpes (the Alps). — The Alps were 
subdivided into Alpes Maritimcs, joining the Etruscan sea ; Cottice, over which Han- 
nibal is supposed to have passed ; GrcBcm, so called from the passage of Hercules ; 
PennincB, so called from the appearance of their tops (from pni7ia, awing) ; Rhcp.ticcb, 
joining Rheetia ; Noriccs, bordering Noricum ; Pannonic(B ; and JnlicB, the eastern 
extremity, terminating in the Sinus Flanaticus (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. 

The chief rivers of Gaul were Rhenus (the RTiine) ; this river, near its mouth, at 
present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the Newlssel ; the 
last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the ancient mouth of 
the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked up by some concussion of 
nature not mentioned in history ; Bhodanus (the Rhone), joined by the Arar (r-aone) ; 
Garumna (Garonne), which united with the Dura?iius (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), 
joined by the Elaver (AlHer) ; and Sequaita (the Seine). 

The principal islands on the coast of Gaul vv'ere Uxanlos (Ushant) ; Uliarus (Oleron) ; 
CcEsarea (Jersey)^ Sarnia (Guernsey); and Eiduna (Alderney) ; on the south coast 
were the Slcechades or Ligustides insulce (isles of Hieras). 

$ 19. The gnvprriment of ancient Gaul, previous to tlie Roman invasion, was aristocralical, 
atid so preat was tiieir liatred of royalty, that those who were even suspected of aiming at sove- 
reiarn power, were instantly put to death. The priests and nol)ies. whum they called Dniids 
and knights, possessed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ; 
•n most of the states an annual magistrate was elected witn powers similar to those of the Ro- 
tian consul, hut it was orda'ned that hoth the magistrate and the electors should be of nohle birth.— 
n person, the Gauls are said to have been generally fair complexinned, with long and ruddy 
.air, whence their country is sometimes called Gallia Conmta, or Hairy Gaul. In disposition 
.hey are described as irascible, and of ungovernable t'liry when provoked ; their tirst onset was 
very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with equal steadiness. 

$ 20. The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in obscurity; we 
only know that it must have been very populous from the numerous tiordes who at different limes 
emigrated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They se zed on the north of Italy, which 
was from them called Cisalpine CJaul ; they colonized part of Germany ; they invaded Greece ; 
and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where, mingling with the Greeks, they seizi^d on a pro- 
vince, from thence called Galatia or Gallo-Graecia.— Another body of Gauls, under the command 
of Brennus, seized and burned Rome itself; and though they were subsequently routed by Camil- 
lus, the Romans ever looked on the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, and designated a 
Gallic war by the word Tamultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war. 

$ 21. The alliance between the people of Massilise (Marseilles) and the Romans furnished the 
latter peo[)le with a pretext for intermeddling in the affairs of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced. 
The first nation whom they attacked was the Salyes, who had refused them a passage into !>|)ain; 
the Salyes were subdued by Cains Sextius, who planted a colony called after his name, Aquae 
SextiiE; about four years after, the greater part of Gallia Narhonensis was subdued by Quinttis 
Martins Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Martins, and made it the capital of the Roman 
province. — After the subjugation of Gallia \arbonensis, the Gauls remained uiunolested until 
the time of Ccesar, who after innumerable difficulties conquered the entirt; country, and annexed 
it to the Roman dominions. 

Though grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the emperors made rapid advances in civilization ; they 
are particularly noticed for their success in eloquence and law. A curious circumstance of the mode in wliich these studies were 
pursued is recorded by mauy historians; an annual contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished weie com- 
pelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of the victors, or else be whipped and plunged into the 
Arar.— See Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. 

^ 22. The country called V i n d e 1 i c i a was situated between the sources of the 
Rhenus (Rhine), and the Doimhius or Isler (Daiiube). Its chief town was Augusta 
Vindelicoritm (Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, pre- 
sented by Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the 
Reformation). — Between Vindelicia and the Alps \''as Rh.t:tta, containing rather 
more than the present territory of the Grisons. Its chi'^f towns were Curia (Coire), 
and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assembled. ^Vindelicia 
and Rhce'ia were originally colonized by the' Tuscans, and for a lo"g time bravely 
maintained their independence. They were eventually subdued during the reign of 
Augustus Caesar, by Drusus the brother of Tiberius. 

§ 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by the rive 
JF!nus (Inn). Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the Roman terri 
tories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. The iron ot 
Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country were highly valued. 
— East of Noricum was Pannonta, also subdued by Tiberius. It was divided into 
Superior, the chief town of which was Vindobona (Vienna); and Inft'rior, whose 
eapiial was Sirminm, a town of great importance in the later ages of the empire. 
Noricum is now called Austria, and Pannonia. Hungary. 

% 24. The boundaries of Illyricum have, not been orenisely ascortahied ; it occ»« 



8 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

j'ied the north-eastern shores of" the Adriatic, and was subdivided into the tliree 
provinces of Jnvydii, Lihumia, and Dalmatia. It included the modern provinces, 
(Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — '1 he chief towns were Salona, near Spcdalro, where 
the emperor Dioclesian retired after fiis resignation of the imperial power; Epidaurua 
or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Bagusa. 

The Tliyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with whicti tliey treated theii 
captives; they possessed great skill Iti ship-building, and the light galleys of tlie Lihiirniiipg con- 
tributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actiurn. — The Roinans drchind war Jijirainsi the 
Illyrians, in consequence of the murder of their arnhMssadors, who had been basely niassacrt'd by 
Teuia, queen of that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg-a peace on the nmst humiliaiing 
conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they were finally subduep 
hy the praetor Anicius, who slew their kingGentius, and made the country a Roman province. 

'5*25. M CESi A lay between Mount //ffw/is (the Balkan) and the Danube, which after its 
junction with the Savus was usually called Jster. It was divided into Superior, the 
present province of Servia, and Inferior, now cal ed Bulgaria. Part of MoBsia Supe- 
rior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian tribe; next to which was a distric* 
called Dard.aiiia ; that part of Moesia Inferior near the mouth of the Danube waa 
called Pontvs, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. 
— The principal cities in Ma-sia Superior were Siiisidunum (Belgrade), at the conflu- 
ence of the Save and Danube ; Nicopoli^, built by Trajan to commemorate his victory 
over the Dacians; and Naisaiis (Nissa), the birthplace of Constarttine the Great. — 
In Mccsin Inferior were Marcinnopolh, the capital ; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banish- 
ment ; Odessus, south of Tomi, and ^si'^'-'^us, near which was the bridge built by 
Darius in his expedition against the Scythians. 

^ 26. Dacia lay'between the Danube and the Carpates, or Aipea JBas/aryj/cffi (Carpa- 
thian or Krapack mountains) ; including the territory of the modern provinces. Tran- 
sylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercynia 
(cf. § 14) , stretched over the north and west part of it. Dacia was inhabited by two 
Scythian tribes, the Daci and Geice, who for a long time resisted every effort to deprive 
them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan. 

After having conquered the cou try, Trajan joined it to Mojsia !)y a magnificent bridge over the Dnnuhe, traces of which still 
exist. His successor, Adrian, influenced either by jealousy of his prtdecessor's glory, or believing it more exfiedient to contract than 
to extend the bounds of the empire, broke down the bridge, and left Uacia to its fate. — This country was of considerable importance 
fo the Romans on account of i's gold and silver mines. In 1807, an interesting monument of Roman writing was found iu one of 
these mines. (Cf. P. IV. § 118. 3.) 

A people has been found among the Wallachian?, that now speak a language very similar to the Latin, and are therefore supposed 
to be descended from the Roman colonists.— Mr. Brewer says he found so many words common to 'he Latin and the Wall ich:an, 
that 1 y means of the Latin he could converse on common subjects with a Waila'chian merchant at Constfinlinople.— 7. Brewer, Resi- 
dence at Constantinople in 1827, &c. New Haven, 1830. 12. — Cf. Walshes Journey from Constantinople. 

III. THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF EUROPE. 

% 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most western 
country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of Spain 
and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, and (to distinguish it. 
from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western situation,) Hesperia Ultima. 
The Romans at first divided it into Hispnnia Citerior, or Spain at the eastern side of 
the Iberus, and Hiapania Ulterior, at the western side; but by Augustus Caesar, the 
country was divided into three provinces; Tarraco?iesis, Bcelica, and Lusilania. Like 
the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. 

§ 28. Tar raconensis exceeded the other two provinces together, both in size and 
importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Durius, on the Atlantic, 
and to the Oroapedo Mons separating it from Baetica, on the Mediterranean ; and re- 
ceived its name from its capital, Tnrmco (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani. 

The other principal towns were Sngunlum, on the Mediterranean, whose siege by 
Hannibal caused the second Punic war; some remains of this city still exist, and are 
called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veleres (old 7valJs) ; Carthago Nova (Carthagena), 
built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Mediterranean : in the interior, 
north-east of the capital, Il.erda (Lerida) , the capital of the Ilergetes, where Caesar 
defeated Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius ; Numantia, near the sources of 
the Durius, whose inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and, 
when unable to hold out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to 
:he conquerors; Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, among the Celtibeii; Ccssarea 
Auguafa (Saragossa) , capital of the Edetani ; Toletum (Toledo); Complutum (.Alcala), 
and Kihora (Talavera) , in the same district ; Calagurris, in the territory of the Vascones, 
whose inhabitants suffered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war, being reduced 
to such straits, that the inhabitants (as .Tuvenal says) actually devoured each other. 
-Near the modern town of Segovia, retaining the name and site of Segovia among the 
Arevac!, are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto), at 
tlie mouth of the Durius, was also called Tortus Gallorum, from some Gauls whc 
Mfttiled thTP, and hence the name of the "present kingdom of Portuifa! — -I'lie north 



p. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 9 

of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantnhri, a fierce tribe, who for a long time 
resisted the utmost efforts ot the Romans ; their territory is the modern province of 
Biscay. 

^ 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, was called 
BiEtica, from the river B^tis. Its chief towns were Cordaha (Cordova;, at first 
called Coloiiia Patricia, the birthplace of the two Senecas, and the poet Lur,an ; ir 
this town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Almanzor; 
it ismoi-e than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richly ornamented, and supported 
by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble: Hi.sjjulis (Seville); Italicc, the 
native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus ; CusLu,lo,ca.\ied also Parnassia, 
because it was founded by a Phocian colony; al4 on the Basis. — f'he south-western 
e.xiremity of Baetica was possessed by a Phoinician colony, called the Basiuli Pceni, to 
distinguish them from the Libyan Poeni, or Carthaginians; their capual was Gudes 
(Cadiz), on an island at the mouth of the Boetis; near it were the little island Tarles- 
BUS, now part of the continent, and Junonis P romsntorium (Cape 'f'rafalgar) . — At 
the entrance of the straits of Hercules or Gades, stood Carteia, on mount Calpe, which 
is now called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel 'I'arik, i. e. the mountain of 'i arik, the 
first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast 
of Africa) were named \he pillars of Hercules, and supposed to have been the bounda- 
ries of that hero's western conquests. North of this was Manda, where Caesar fought 
his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. 

Lusitania, which occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of Portugal, 
contained but few placesof note ; the most remarkable were Augusta Emerila (Menda) 
and Olislppo (Lisbon), said to have been founded by Ulysses. 

^ 30. 'I'he principal Spanish rivers were, Iberus (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajo) ; Darius 
(Douro) ; BcBtis (Guadalquiver) ; Anas (Guadiana). — The promontory at the north- 
western extremity of the peninsula was named Arlabrum or Cellicum (Finisterre); that 
at the south-western, Sacrum, because the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there; 
it is now called Cape St. Vincent. ^ 

$ 31. Spain was first made known tn the ancients by thf* conquests nf Hercules. In later times 
tt)e- Carthaiiinians became masters of ttie greater part of the country; they were in their turn 
expelled by the Romans, who kepi possession of the peninsula for several centuries.— Dur- 
ing the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the contending parties. Here 
Sertorius, after the death of Marius, assembird the fugitives of the popular |»ariy, and fir a long 
time resisted the arms of Sylla : here, Afraniiis and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey, ina^le 
a gallaiu stand against Julius Csesar ; atnl here, after the death of Pompey, his sons made a 
fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their fatlier's misfortunes.— Upon the 
overthrow of the Romm empire, Spain w^is conqm-red by the Vandals, who gave to one of the 
provinces the name Vandalusia, n^w corrupted iiuo Andalusia. 

ITALIA. 

^32.' Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both by 
ancient and modern writers, Irom the beauty of its climate and the fertility of its soil, 
'f'he Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaliered ; on the north are 
the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the South the Sicilian strait, and 
on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the country was called Saturnia, 
Ausonia, and CEnotria; by the Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the 
west of their country. 

Italy has always be(>n subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less independent of 
each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two pans, denominated the nurtheru and 
eiiutheru ; and as the chief city and capital of the country is of such celet)rily, shall enter itiio a 
nmre particular description of^ Rome; ; adopting the following arrangement ; 1. The Geography 
of the northern portion of Italy ; 2 The Geography of the southern portion; 3. The Topography 
of the city of Rome. 

§ 33. (I) Geography of the Northern portion of Italia. The principal ancient divi 
sions of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latiuni. 

Gallia Cisalpina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting, after tiio 
Social war, the toga, or distinctive dress of tffe Romans, lay between the Alps and the 
river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, into Transpadana, at 
the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; these were subdivided into 
several smaller districts. 

North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief town, 
Augusta Taurinorum, is now called 'I'urin ; next to these were the Insubres, wiiose 
principal towns were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticinus, 
•vhere Hannibal first defeated the I^onians, after his passage over the Alps; the Ceno- 
manni, possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia); Cr?mo7ia; and Ma/nlua, the birtb 
place of Virgil; and the Euganei. whose chief towns were Tridenium (Trent; j anU 
Verona, the birthplace of Catullus — Next to these were the Veneti and Carni tht't 
chief towns were Palavium (Padua) , the birthplace of Livy, built by the Trojan \nte- 
Aor, after the destruction of 7'roy : and Aquihia, retaining its former 'fm-K? '^•i» not 



10 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

former consequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to AttUa king oi th« 
Huns. Next to iliese was tlie province Hisiria, or Isiria chief town, Tergeste 
'Trieste). 

Soutii of the Po where the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua (Genoa), 
on the Sitius Ligusticiis (Gulf of Genoa); Por.us Hertulis Moikbci (Moi.aco), and 
Nicata (Nice); tlie territory of the Boii, containing Bononiu (Bologna); Mutma 
(Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma, and Placentia; and the 
country of the Lingones, whose chiet town was liavenna, where the emperors of the wesi 
held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians. 

§34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus (Maggiore) ; Benacus 
(Di Gardi), and Larius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from 
the vilhige Comnm, near Pliny's villa. 

'I'he rivers of this province were the Eridanus or Podus (Po), called by Virgil the 
king of rivers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary streams, 
especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincius (Mincio), ialls into the Adriatic; th« 
Alhesis (Adige), rising in the Rhsetian Alps; and the Rubico7i (Rngone), deriving its 
source from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. 

$ 35. Thfi ii\habitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hostile to the 
power of Rome ; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when he invaded Italy, and in the Social 
war they were the most inveterate of the allied states in their hostility. — When the empire of 
the west fell before the northern tribes, this province was seized by the Lonjrobardi, from whom 
the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number 
of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom was banished 
from the rest of Europe. 

§ 36. E tr uria extended along the coast of the lowei or Tuscan sea, from the small 
river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. 

The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria were: the town and port of Luna, 
at the mouth of the river Macra; Pisce (Pisa); Florenlia (Florence); Portus Herculis 
Lebur?ii (.Leghorn); Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeated ; Perusia, near the 
lake 'I'hrasymene, whernrfiannibal obtained his third victory over the Romans; Clusium, 
the city of Porsenna; Vohinii (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the infamous minister of 
Tiberius, was born ; Falerii. (Palari), near mount Soracte, the capital of the Falisci, 
memorable for the generous conduct of Camillus while besieging it ; Veii, the ancient 
rival of Rome, captured by Camillus after a siege of ten years ; Ccsre, or Agylla (Cer 
Veleri), whose inhabitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from 
the Gauls, in reward for whirh they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed the 
privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was 
said to be erirolled among the Casrites; Centum Cellcp (Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of 
the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. 

§ 37- The principal rivers of Etruria were the Ar?ius (Arno) , rising in the Apennines 
and falling into the sea near Pisa; and the Tiber, which issuing from .the Umbrian 
Apennines, and joined \>y the Nar (Nera) and A?i,io (Teverone\ running in a south- 
westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome. 

The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, Tyrrhevi; they are said to have come originally 
from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces oi' their eastern origin, to a very late 
period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of theii 
Buperstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsaying 
They attained distinguished excellence in art (cf. P. IV. $ 109, 110); inlereating monuments of 
which still exist (cf. P. IV. $ 173). 

^ 38. Umbria was situated east of Etnn-ia, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which 
it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurui 
(Metro) , where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing 
to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns; Ariminum{^\xn\n\) , the first 
town taken by Cogsar, at the coinmencement of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro) 
Seftna GaUica (Senigaglia), built by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum; Spolelium (Spo 
letto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at 'I'hrasymene. 

The memorv of this repulse is still preserved in an inacriplinn over one of the g;a'es, thence called Porta di Fuga, " Here also ij 
a beautiful aqueduct carried across a valley, three hundred feet high." !V. Fiske, p. 343, as cited P. IV. § ISt. 6. 

§ 39. Picenuni lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic. lis principal 
towns were, Asculum vAscoli), the capital of the province, which must not be confound- 
ed with Asculum in Ap'lia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; Corfinium (San Ferino). 
the chief town of the Peligiii ; Sahno, the birthplace of Ovid ; and Ancona, retaining ita 
ancient name, founded hy a Grecian colony. 

Close to the harbor of Ancona is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan ; the pillars are of Parian marble, and s<il, 
rPtain their pure whiteness and exquisite polish, as if fresh 'roni the vvorlimen's hap,ds. The celebrated chapel of Loretto is neai 
Ancona. 

South of Piceiiuin and Umbria. were the territories of the Marsi and Sabini. The for 
mer were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was MnrruHum, on the Lacus Fuc'nius. 
This lake Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain. It was afterwards partially effecied 
by Claudius Ctesar, who employed thirty thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a 

ssaac for the waters through the mountain's from the lake to the river Liris ; whci 



P.I, EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 11 

every thing was prepared for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid nava, 
games, shows, &c.; but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, being 
neglected, was soon choked up, and the lake recovered its ancient dimensions. — Tlie 
Sabine towns were Cures, whence the name Quirites is by some derived (cf. § 53); 
Reate, near which Vespasian was born ; Amiternum, the birthplace of Sailust ; Crus- 
tumerium. and FidencB. Mons Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome reiired in their 
contest with the patricians, was in the territory of the Sabines. In these countries were 
the first enemies of the Romans, but about the time of Camillas the several small states 
in this part of Italy were subjugated. 

^40. Latium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the Tuscat) 
f5ea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was'called Latium, irom lateo, to lie hid. 
because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethroned by Jupiter. 

The chief town was Rome (see § 51 ss). Above Rome on the Tiber, stood Tihur 
(Tivoli), built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the Roman 
nobility, near which was Hoiace's favorite country seat (P. III. *§ 326) : south of Rome, 
Tusculum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modern times, for the salubrity 
of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have been built by Tele- 
gonus, the son of Ulysses; near it was Cicero's celebrated Tusculan villa: east of 
Tusculum, PrcBueste (Palestrina), a place of great strength both by nature and art, 
whore the younger Marius perished in a subterranean passage, wjiilo attempting to 
escape, when the town was besieged by Sylia : south of Tusculum Longa Alba, the 
parent of Rome, and near it the small towns Algidum, Paedum,and uabii, betrayed to 
the Romans by the well-known artifice of the younger Tarquin. — On the coast, at the 
mouth of the Tiber, stood Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, built by jVncus Martius; 
south of this were Laurenlum, Lavinium (built by ^Eneas and called after his wife La- 
vinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Camillas resided during his exile. 
South of these were the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Romans; their 
chief cities were Antium, where there was a celebrated temple of Fortune ; Suessa 
Pomelia, the capital of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Ronaans ; and Corioli, from 
the capture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. 

South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled residence 
of Circe ; Anxur (Terracina), on the Appian Way; the town and promontory Caieta, 
deriving its name from the nurse of ^Eneas, who was there interred ; Fonnice, near 
which Cicero was assassinated by command of Antony; and, at the mouth of the 
Liris, Mintur?icB, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder 
Vlarius endeavored to conceal himself when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine 
Marshes extended through a great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have 
jeen made to drain them. '^I'lie exhalations from the stagnant water have always made 
-he surrounding country very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, 
.he birthplace of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman 
Aquinum, the birthplace of Juvenal; and Sinitessa, celebrated for its mineral waters, 
originally called Sinope. 

% 4L The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (Teverone) ; the AUia, on the 
banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaughter ; and the 
Cremera, where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, were de- 
stroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense against the 
Veientes ; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liris (Garigliano), which divided 
Latium from Campania, falls into the Tuscan sea. — The principal lakes were named 
Lacus Albulus (Solfatara); remarkable for its suiphurous exhalations, and the adjoin- 
ing grove and oracle of Faunus ; Lacus RegiUus, near which Posthumius defeated 
the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed ; and La- 
cus Albanus. near which was Mount Albanus where the solemn sacrifices calle-d 
Feriae Latinae were celebrated. 

The capital of Latium, in the rei|Tn of King Lafinus, was Laiirentum ; in the rei^ri of .^Jneas, 
Lavinium; in the reien of Ascaniiis, Lonsa AIha; luit all these were eclipsed by the siiperioi 
grandeur of Rome. The several independent states were subdued by the Romans in the carliei 
ages of the republic. 

% 42. (2) Geography of the Southern portion of Ttalta. The southern part of Itmy 
was named Magna Grceda, from the number of Creek colonies that at different periods 
settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Calabria, Lucanir. 
and Bruttium. 

C a m p a n i a, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extended along 
the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris to the river Silarus, which dividca 
jt from Lucania. 

The chief city was Capua, so named from i^s founder Capys, cplebra*ed for its riches 
and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were enervated and corrupted. 
North of it were Teanum, celebrated f^r the mineral waters in its vicinity, and Vemt' 
frum, famous for olives. — South of Capua was (.nsiiinmn. where a garrison of Pre- 
nestines. after having made a most gallant resistance, and protracted the siege til/' 
they had endured the utmost extremity of famine, were at last compelled to stirrender 



i*i CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

»exi to this was Lilernum, at the mouih of the little river Claniiis, wh^re Scipio Afri- 
canus lor a long time lived in voluntary exile. — i""ariher south was Curna), IouiicIbcI b> 
a colony IVom Chalcis in Euboea, the residence ot the celebrated Curnean ^^ibyl, ano 
near it the town and promontory Misiiinin, so named i'rom Misenus, the trumpeter of 
^neas, who was buried there. — Below ilie cape were Buicp., lamous lor its niinera 
waters ; Puteoll (Puzzoli) , near which were the Fhlegra^i-campi, where Jupiter is said 
to have vanquished the giants ; Cimmerium, whose eaily inhabnarus are said, by Ho- 
mer, to have lived in caves. After these we come to Farlhennpc or Neapolis (Naples). 
This beauliiul city was founded by a colony trom Cumae, and tor a long time retained 
the traces of a Grecian original; it was called Fanheuope trom one ot the sirens said 
?o have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain t'ausilypus (Pausilippo), 
ihrough which a subterranean passage has been cut, hall a mile in lengrh and twenty- 
'wo feet wide ; neither the time ot making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said to 
ie that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the villa 
•>/" Luciillus. — At the southern extremity of the Si?ius Paleolunus (bay ot Naples), 
were Slahice, remarkable lor its mineral waters, and Surretitnni, celebrated lor its 
wines; near the latter was the Promonlorium SurretUini/m or AtUenantm (Capo delta 
Minerva); east of Naples was Nolu, where Hannibal was tirst deleated, and wh^re 
Augustus died. In the south of Campania was Sdler-^Aim (Sale'-no', the capital ot the 
Picentini. — Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius w^rc Hercalav.um and Pompeii, 
destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. 

The reiiMiiis of these towns were accidfntally discovered in Ihe beg^nn'tng of the last century, and the numerous and valuable 
reniains of an'ie)uity give us a erealersi^ht into the domestic habits of the Romans iliaii could previously be obliinrd. "Above ihiity 
streets of Poiii|ieii are now (IMO) restored to light. The walls vvhicfi formed its ancient enclosures have been recogn zed ; a mag- 
nificent amphitheatre, a theatre, a forum, the temple of Isis, tliat of Venus, and a number of olhrr buildings, have been cleare.l." 
Housis, shops, cena*^, with all their various tLrniture, are found just as they were when buried under the volcanic mas-. — See the 
worUs on Herculaneum and Pompeii cited P. IV. § 243. 2 — Cf. P. 111. § 329. 

^43. The principal Campanian rivers were the V^dtvrvus (Vuhurno) ; Sihelhvs 
'Sebeto). now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions ot 
Mount Vesuvius; and the Sarnvs (Sarno). — 'the principal lakes were the Luvrinus, 
which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with 
a volcanic mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre ; and the Avenuis, near 
which is a cave represented by Virgil as the entrance of the internal regions. It was 
said that no birds could pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ; 
whence its name, from a (not) and op^i^ (a bird). 

Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of riifferent 
barltaroiis trit>es ; at length it was seized liy the Saracens in the tentli century. These were ex- 
pelled by tlie Nornfians, under Tancred, who founded the kiiii;doin of the Two Sicilies. 

§ 44. East of Labium and Campania was S a m n i u m, including the country of the 
Hirpini. — 'I'he chief tqwns were Sainnls, the capital ; Benevm.ium (B-enevento), at 
first called Maleventum, from the severi'y of the winds, but when the Romans sent 
a colony here they changed the -name, from moMves of supers i'ion ; near this town 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the assistance of the Samnies. was totally 
defeated hy the Roman army, commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caiidium, near which 
are the Cnudincp. FurcalcB. (Forchia d'Arpaia). a narrow and dangerous defile, in which 
the Roman army, being blocked up by the Samnire general, Pontius, were obliged to 
surrender on disgraceful conditions; viv\(\. AlfmicB. remarkable tor its manufactory 
of earthenware — Among the Hirpiri, were Ec/uofulicmn, whose unpoetical name is 
eelebrated by Horace ; Trixiaim and Herdonio (Ordonia), on the borders of Apulia.— 
Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of AmsanctuK, surrounded by hills, and re- 
markable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs ; on a neighboring hill 
stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, w^hence 
the valley is now called Muffeta. 

§ 4.5. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sahatua (Sabato), and Color (Ca- 
tore), both tributary to the Vidturnus. 

The Sainnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many years 
contended with tlie Romans for the empire of Italy ; at leneth. after a war of more than seventy 
years, during which the Romans were freqticntiy reduced to great extremities, the fortune of 
Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. 

"^ \Q>. Apulia, called ako Daunia ard .Tapygia, but now La PusUa, occupied the 
greater part of the cast of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta- 
rentum. 

Its chief towns: Tenm/ni. named Apiilum to distinguish it from a town of the same 
name in Campania; A rpi said to have I een lutilt by Diomede. after his return from 
the Trojan war; north of Arpi is Mount Gargaiius (i^aint Angeln). in the spur of the 
boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of Arpi were Vria, which save the 
Smcieiir name to the Sinua Urius, and Sipnnfi/m (Manfredonia. which cave to the Si?n's 
Uriuft its modern name, GliK of Manfredonia); on the borders of Pamnium stood 
Lnrerii. celebrated for its. wool ; Salap'o (S^alpe): and AsciiJum. called Apulum. fc 
li-ituuMjish ii from a town ot the same name in Picenuin. — Near the rver Autiduji 



P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 13 

Stood the village of CannoB, where Hannibal almost annihilated the povvc/ of Rome; 
through tlie fields of Cannas runs the small stream Vergelliia, which i.s said to have 
been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a 
bridge to Hannibal and his soldiers; Cnnusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of 
the Roman army were received afier their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), near Mount 
Vultur, the birthplace of Horace; Barium (.Bari), where excellent fish were caught in 
great abundance ; and Eff?ialia, on the Matinian shore, lamous tor bad wa er and good 
honey. 

The principal Apulian rivers were Cerhalus (Cerbaro), and Aufdus (Ofanto), remark- 
able for the rapidity of its waters; both falling into the Adriatic. 

^47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is 

called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were 

Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed 
m the fifteenth centuiy; from iliis the Italians who wished to pass into Greece gene- 
rally sailed ; Hydruntum (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; 
Castrum Minerva: (Castro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called 
Capo Saiila Maria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tare/tttim (I'arento), 
built by the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudice. the 
birthplace of the poet Ennius; and Calllpolis (Callipoli), built on an island and joined 
to the continent by a splendid causeway. 

The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of 
Tarentum. 

'^ 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to the bay of 
Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the empe- 
ror Basil ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to 
perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost. 

The principal towns on the Mare Tyrrhenum (Tuscan sea), were, Laus, on the 
river of the same name flowing into the Si?ius Laics (Gulf of Policastro) ; Buxeiduvi, 
called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; Velia or Elea, the birthplace of Zeno, 
the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, that built Marseilles 
(cf.§ 17): in the vicinity of Elea, near Mount AJhurnus (Postiglione, or Alburno), 
PcBflum. called by the Greeks Posidonia, celebrated in ancient time for its roses, in 
modern for its beautiful ruins. 

On the ruins nf/'xsfum, cf. Evttace, as cited P. IV. ^ 190. l. — JViru:hdmann, Histoire, &c., vol. iii. as cited P. IV. § 32. 4.— Di 
lagardetle, Les Ruines de Psstum, cited P. IV. § 243. 1. 

In the interior of Lucania, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus ; Alei num, on the Silarus : 
Grumentum, on the Aciris ; and Las^aria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the 
franier of the Trojan horse.— On the shore of the Si?ius Tarenlinus (Tarentine bay), 
were Metapontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and 
the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of 
the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble ; Syharis, on a small peninsula, infamous (or 
its luxury; and T'/jMr/«»t, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their ovv i 
city was destroyed by the people of Crotona The plains where these once flourishing 
cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave 
behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural re- 
mains contribute to the melancholy of the scene, by recalling to memory the days ol 
former greatness. 

The principal rivers oT Lucania were the TanagriLs (Negri), which, after sinking 
in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and uniting with 
the Silarun falls into the Sinus PoEstanus (Gulf of Salerno) ; Melpiis (Melfa), which 
'empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro. so called from the number of 
ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanus, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into 
the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agri), and the Syharis (Coscile), small streams on the 
Tarentine coast. 

^ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-telhis or 
B rut tiu m, but is now called Calabria-ultra.— The principal cities of the Bruttii, on 
■.he Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, who waged war in 
Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; CoiiseiUia (Cosen/a), 
the capital of the Bruttii; Terina, on the Sinus Termffi?/.* (Gulf of St. Eiiphemia) ; 
pnd Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). — On the Sicilian 
btrait, were the town and promontory ScyllcBum (Scylla). whose dangerous rocks gave 
rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf P. II. *S 117); opposite to the celel)rated 
whirlpool Charyhdis on the coast of Sicily : Eheginm {Reggio). so named by the Greeks, 
because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, ana 
broken off here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony from 
Chalcis, in the island of Euboea, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its 
fertility ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopefra, so named from 
the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell' Arnai. 

On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes Cro'nia. found<^d bv 
3ome Aohaeans on their return from thp Trojan war, where Pytiiagor-- .•"UolichetJ W 



PLATE I- 




_^ J2 8-i'5 /O 

PLAN OFANCIENT ATHENS. 

(According to thil given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis.) 




Porta Flami- 

nia. 
Porta Collina 
Porta Viiniiia 

lis. 
Porta Ksqiiili 



5. Porta Nsvia. 

6. Porta Carmen- ^ 

talis. -^ 

7. Porta Capena. — --^ 

8. Poita Trium- 

phalii. 

9. Aqua Clacdi^. 

10. .Aqua Appia 

1 1. Aqua Marcia. 
1'2. Aqua Julia. 
13. Aqua Virgo. 

a. KX\3M Bridge. 

b. Triumphal Bridge 

c. Janiculensian Bridge. 
Bridg*; of Cestus. 
Bridge of Fsbricius. 
Palatine Bridge. 
S'Jti iciap Bridge 



PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. 

'As publishad by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 



J4 



1. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. \ 

celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for '.heir skill in athletu 
exercises, that it was commonly said *'the last of the Crotoniafos is the first of the 
Greeks"; south of this was the Promonlorium Lucinium, wheie a very celebrated 
temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the 
remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacaum 
(Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name; Caiilon 
(Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; sotith 
of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the Proviontorluvi Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the 
Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy.^'l he cape at the 
southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Herciilis, now Spartivento. 

The principal rivers of ihe Bruttii were the CratMs (Craii), and NfCB'Jics i'Neu), which 
received its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to 
prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. 

J 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who coloriizHd the south of Italy, were generals, who 
on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects' 
and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost coritinual.y 
devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at difTer^nl times, and utider various 
leaders, sought to obtain, in a foreign country, thai tranquillity and liberty that had i)een denied 
them at home.— These ditferent stales were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an 
annual congress similar to the Am[)hittyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclca, and 
united the several communities in one great confederacy. 

Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading stnte. but after a bloody war, it was destroyed 
by Ihe jealousy of the people of Grotona ; the Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five times they 
rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced 
to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thuriuin. — The Crotoniates did not long 
preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their < iiy, and 
they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. — To secure their superiority, the Locrians 
entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable 
influence in the south of Italy, tintil Ihe attempt ot the elder Dionysius to set ure to himself a pari 
of the country by building a wall from the Terineean aulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the in- 
gratitude of the younger Dionysius, eave them a distaste for Ihe connection. — After breaking 
off their alliance with the Siciliairs, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans ; during the 
war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity ; 
but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined 
Hannibal. — It is remarkable, that in all the other Italo-Grecian states the people embraced the 
Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division 
of parties was directly the contrary. 

The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but beine enervated by riches and 
luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, kitig of Epirus, to 
secure their city from the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian 
campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command 
of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans. 

After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su- 
periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods 
of the Roman empire. 

^ 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in 
the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of 
Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by 
Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — The 
Gates (PortcB) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were 
thirty-seven; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most 
noted; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tihurtina, CcRlimontana, Latina, Capena, Fla- 
mifiia, Ostie?isis. 

For a plan of ancient Rome, see our Plate I., from which the reader may learn the position of, many o the important object! 
ibout to be noticed. 

"5> 52. Thirty-one great Poads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via 
Sacra, Appia, Emilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roadc "issuing from the 
Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the fron- 
tiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called 
Milliarium aureum{Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were 
reckoned. " This curious monument was discovered in 1S23." Butler's Geogr. Clas.? 
p. 39.) 

" They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded 
in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all 
the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest, 
Bioups, mixed with cemenl, statumen ; the middle, gravel or small sUmes, r-ndtra, \o prepare a 
level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consistud 
of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighb'irhood (>'. 
cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, viarirines, protected by curb-stones, which deflned 
the e.xtent of the central part, auser, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that no water 
might lie upon it." — "T e public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united 
the subjects of the most distant pri-vinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object ha<l 
bet-n to facilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest int< lligence, 
and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their 
extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses were every where erected only 
at the distance of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty norses, 
and by the help of these relavs, it Was easy to travel a hundred miles in a dav along the Rouiax 

4 



16 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

roads The it!=e of the post? was allowed to those who claimed it by an imperial mandLte ; but 
though originally intended f >r the public service, it was sonietiuies iiuiulged to the business ot 
conveiiierw y of private citizens." — Dr. Rnbinsmi noticed three Roman mile-stones on his route 
(in I808) from Tyre lo Beiruc in Syria; one of them "a large column with a Latin inscription 
containing ihe names of St'(»iimiiis !?everus ami Pertinax." Traces still exist of a Roman 
road leading from Dimasciis to Peira, and thence even tn Ailah. The rimst ancient and cele- 
brated of all the Roman Vive w.is the Appiati way, called Rc<riiia F'larnvi, the Qiieeii of Roads 
It was constructed by the censor, Ap[)ius Claudius, in the year nf the city 441, and extended 
from Rome to Ca[)ua. Afterwards it was continued to Rrundusium, 3(iO miles. At Sinuessa it 
threw off a branch called the Domiiian way, wliich rati along the coast to Baia;, Neapo is, iler- 
culaneum, and Pompeii. 

A'. Bergitr, Hist. Jps granils chemins des Ronnins. Par. 1792. i vols. 4. — D'.itiville, ori the extent of ancient Rome anc the grand 
mads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad Inter, vol. xxx. p. 19S. — E. Rohinson, Bibl. Res. vol. iii. p. 415. 432 ; vol. ii. p. 562, a* 
cited §117. 

^ 53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed through th« 
city from the north ; Pons Milvius ; ^lius, still, standing ; Fabriciits ; Ceslius ; Pa- 
laihius or Senator'tus, some arches of it still remaining ; Sahlicius or ^inilius ; Jani- 
cularis, still existing ; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. 

Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or hills. 
These were Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquilmus, Ccelius, Avenlinus , Quirinalis, 
Viminalis. 

The foundation or commencement of the city was iriade, according: to the common accounts, 
on the Mons Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emjterora 
usually abode, and hence the term Palatium., palace, applied to designate a royal or princely 
dwelling. The hill first added was pr()bably the Qmrinalis, on which it has been supposed waa 
a Sabine settlement called Qiiirimn ; this addition being made when the union was formed, be- 
tween the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, ami the Romans took the name 
of Qiiirites. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union. 
Next was added the hill Collins, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted. 
The other four hills were successively added, at least before the close of the reign of Serviua 
Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills on the north < f the Tiber were also coiinecte<1 with the 
city. The Janicalum was fortified by Ancus Marlins, fourth king of Rome, as a sort of out-post, 
and joined to the city by a bridge. The other, the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from the predic- 
tions uttered there by soothsayers, vates, was added at a later period ; it wa.s rather disliked by 
the ancients, but is now the princijial place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St. 
Peter's cliurch, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, calleil also 
Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian. 

On the side of the Capiloline hill towards the Tiber was Ihe Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, (in his Philns. of Travel, cited P. IV 
§ 190) "of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such terrific colors by Seneca, immeiiSX altitudinis aspectus, only thirty fee 
of its summit now overlook the consolidated dust of ancient tpniples and the accumulated filth of luodern hovels." — The sf ot wa 
visited in 1^29 by two American fjentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom writes, " after very cautious estimates we both jui set 
the original height to have been about 80 feet, of which about twenty may be filled up, leaving about 60 for 4ts present altitude." 

^ 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Augustus 
there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, and affords 
the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of notice. in the city. The 
names of the districts were as follows; 1. Porta Capena ; 2. Coalimoutium ; 3. his and 
Serapis or Monet a ; 4. Temphim Pads or Via Sarra ; 5. Esquilinn cum ttirri et colle 
Viminali ; 6. Alia Semita ; 7. Via Lata ; 8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Flamiiiius ; 
10. Palatium ; 11. Circus Maximus ; 12. Piscina Puhlica ; 13. Aventinus ; 14. Trans 
Tiherim. To describe only' the most remarkable objects in each region or district would 
trespass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of 
them. 

A tabular statement of the objects included in the fourteen regions is given in KennttVs Antiquities, ch. ii. as cited P. III. § 197. 2. 
—See G. C. Adler''s ausfarliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Alton*, I7S1. 4. with engravinscs. The basis, mainly, is the 
arrangement of Sextus Rufus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. fCf. Grxvii Thesaurus, vols. 3 and 4.J 
tfardini's Italian original was published anew by jj. Ni'bby, Rome, IS'kiO, 4 vols. 8. with plates. — Descrizinne di Roma Antica forma 
novamente con le Autorita di Bart. Marliani, Onoj. Panvinio, he. with plates. Rom. 1697. 2 vols. 4.— C. Fea. Nuova descriziont 
ii Roma antica e moderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols 8. with plates.— C. Burton. Monuments and Curiosities of Rome. Oxf. 1821. Transl 
Into German by Skkler, Weim. 1823. S.—fenuti, Descrizione topografiadelle antichita di Roma. ed. by Visconti, 1803, with PiaWk 
Notes. Rom. 1824. 2 vols, i.— Burgess, Top'^graphy and Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. S.—Ficoront, Vestigia di Roma 
—Plainer, Bunsen, Gerhard and R':stell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Tubing, and Stuttg. IS29-37. 3 vols, with a Bilderheft (of 

Number of plates).—/*. Blumr, Iter Italicum. Halle, 1836. 4 vols 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, of. P. IV, 

■55 186, 188, 191, 226, 243. Rome in the Nineteenth Century. N. Yk. 1827. 2 vols. 1-2, 

^ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the peo- 
ple, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the nineteen 
which are mentioned, the Campus Martins was the largest and most famous. It wag 
near the Tiber; thence called sometimes Tihcrinus, but usually Martins, as conse- 
crated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated 
after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent struc- 

•res ; and porticos were erected, under which the citizens could exercise in rainy 
weather. It was also adorned with sta'ues and arches. Comitia were held here ; 
and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. III. § 259), constructed for the purpose. 

•Ji 56. The main streets of the city were termed vice. On each side were connected 

>locks -^^ houses and buildings ; these being separated by intervening streets and by 




iTrmi if nTPriirr?i!i 



ilil/ili!;lililliiil;l ;iM;/;!(ii)i|!i;riiJl;.: ;',. .Aii^ 







iiiiHUiiyiimniMKii 



(iUfrrnTlmmlJ 



.Mlii 



p % EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. H 

lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occu 
pied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici; of these ihere were, it in -Baid. 
424. They had particular names; e. g. Vicus albus, jugarius, lanarius, Tiberti.ius, 
Juncitis, AliiiervcB, &c. 

<j> 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the 
transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably trans- 
acted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it became convei.ient to 
make a sepc:-".tion ; and the Fora \Jtre divided into two sorts, Civ.lia and Vtiialiu. 
The Roman Fora were not hke the ayopai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ; 
the breadth not more than two-thirds of the length; the difl'erence between the length 
and bread'h of the chief Forum discoveied at Pompeii is greater. 

Until the time of Juhus Caesar there was but one P'orum of the first mentioned 
class ; that generally called Forum Romavum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. 
This gave name to the 8th region (^ 51), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine 
hills ; it was 800 leet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by TarquiniTjs 
Priscus, v/ith porticos, shops, and other buildings. On the public buildings around 
the Forurn great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments, so that it 
presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle: here were the Basilicce, Curice, 
and Tahularia ; temples, prisons, and public granaries : here too were placed nume- 
rous statues (cf. P. IV. 'S 182. 2), with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum 
was the place called the Curliaii Lahe, where Curiius is said to have plunged into a 
mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side 
were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and 
orators addressed the people ; usually called the Rostra, because adorned with the 
beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the 
part of the Forum called the Comit'um, where some of the legislative assemblies were 
held, particularly the Comitia CAiriata. In or near the Comilium was the Puteal 
Atfii ; Q. ■puteal was a Httle space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square, and 
roofed over : such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck 
with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Trihuiud, for hold- 
ing courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure 
marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Lihonis, near which usurers and 
bankers were accustomed to meet {Hor. Sat. ii. vi. 35). The milUariianinthe Forum 
has already been mentioned (^ 52). 

Besides this ancient Forum, there were four others built by ditFerent emperors, and designed 
for civil purposes ; the Fumm Jnliinn, built by Julius Cssar. with spoils taken in the Gallic war; 
the Forum ^uffnsii, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latiiim <m one side and 
the kings of Rome on the other; the Fumm J^ervie, hegiiti by Douiitian and finished by Nerva, 
having statues of all the emperors; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all. 

The Fora Venalia were fourteen in number ; among them the Forum Boarium, ox 
and cow market, adorned with a brazen bull; Piscarmm, fish market; Olitorium, 
vegetable market ; Suarium, swine market, &c. 

?58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place bc.ongs to the Capitolium, 
The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifices in the c'ty. It 
was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from tirne to tim.e eivlarged 
and embellished. Its gates were brass, audit was adorned with costly gilding; 
hence the epithets aurea and fidgens, applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill, in 
the highest part of the city, and was sometimes called arx. The ascent from the 
forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square, extending about 200 
^feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides 
'with two. — Three temples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitohnus 
hi the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The 
Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Komuli, or 
cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the Capitol was also 
the asylum, or place of refuge. 

This celebrated structure was destroyed, or nearly so, by fire, three times; first, in the Marian 
war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla; secondly, in the-Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Ves- 
pasian; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Doiitiiian 
with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain ; respecting which there 
has been much discussion. 

See Smith'i Diet, of Antiquities, art. Capitolium, and worlss there cited. , 

•5> 59. The temple next in rank was the Pan'heon, buih by Marcus Agrippa, scn-in- 
law of AusfusMis, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor. or, as its name imports, \o all the 
gods (TravTwv dtcov). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about 
the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside 
are either solid marble or incrusted. The front on the outside was covered with 
bmzen plates gilt, and the top with silver plates; but now it is covered with lead. 
The gate was of brass, of extraordinary size and work. It has no yvindows, but only 
an opening in the top, «>f about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof i» 
curiously vaulted, void snaces being left here ind *hor6 *br the greater slrengrh 



18 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

" The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circum- 
tVrence, and thirty-nine feet in height, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental 
granite, having bases and capitals of whi e marble." The Pantheon is one of the 
most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda, 
hiving been consecraed by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and 
all the Saints. 

Dr. .^dain, in his account of the Paniheon, says, "they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but 
now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in $ 53, writes, "the 
statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one 
a.tcends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true 
P)ur centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place 
under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in H."?!."— For a view of the Paniheon, see Plate HI. 

^ 60. There were many oher temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. III. ^ 203), which 
cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving 
for the public treasury; perhaps thus used because one of the strongest places in the 
city ; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, 
fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, 
among them the Librl Elephatitini, or ivory tablets containing hsts of the tribes. 

The temple of Janus was built, or finished at li?ast, by Numa; a square edifice, 
wi'h two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of 
war, and shut in time of peace. 

So continually was the city eneaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, 
in the reign of Numa; secon.ily, at the close of the first Punic war, R. C. 241 ; three times in the 
reign of Augustus ; the last lime near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards, 
once under Nero, once under Vesp.isian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350.- The 
gates were opened with formal ceremony {Virir. Mi\. vii. 707). — For a view of the temple of Ja- 
nus, see Plate VII. 

Sainte Cruix, Sur la cloture du teaiple de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 3S5. 

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library, 
(P. IV. ^ 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side 
of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — Besides these, we may name the temple of 
Concord ; of the goddess of Peace {Pad ceterncp) ; of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, 
built by Marcellus. 

The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves 
and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves [luci) are enumerated, chiefly 
within the city of Rome. 

^6\. The Curias were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated, 
some of them for assembUes of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of 
the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former 
class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curiae ; 
viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallc^ts is, Pompeii, &c. 

Th; term Curia, as de'i;natin^ an edifice or apartment, seems to hive been originally applied to the halls or places where the 
eitizens of the respective Cufix (cf. P. lU. § 2l9 a. § 251) assembled for religious and other purposes; each of the thirty had its com 
moQ hall or place of meeting. 

The BasiliccB were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, 
and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers 
also had rooms for transacting their business. There were fourteen (according to 
some, twenty or twenty-one) of these buildings ; among them. Basilica vetus, Cori' 
stanti?ila7ia, Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicae and the Curiae were chiefly 
around the Forum. 

It should oe remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so much 
resenibleJ the Basiii'-a: just described. The eirlirst churchfs bearing this name were erected under Cnnstantine. He gave his own 
palace on ihe Coelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next waa 
that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, ejected A. D 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars ; it stood 
»bout twelve centuries, and was then pulled down by Pope Jiiliiia 2.1, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same name. 
—On the structure of the early Cliiislian churches, see /.. Co/emaTi, Antiquities of ihe Christian Church. And. 1841. 8. chap. iit. 

v^ 62. The Ctrn were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to 
fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right 
angles with the sides, anl the other carved, and so forming nearly the shape of an 
ox-bow. A wall exte'dei quite round with ranges of seats for the spectators. There 
were eigh* of these buildi i^s. besides the Circts Maximus, described in anofher place 
situated in th'=' vicinity of the Forum. For an account of these, see P III. '5> 232. 

The Stadia were s'ructures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but 
less in size and cost (cf, P. IV. § 23^i. y—Hippoironu were of the same charac'er, and 
seem to have bee*^ some'imes built for private use. 

vS 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constru-^ted for the purpose 
of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were 
termed theatra (cf P. III. i 23S). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pom- 
pey, of hewn stone, capable of accomoda ing 40.000 persons ; near this, in the vici- 
iiity 01 the river, were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbns hf-^cp .nr 



5ncu 




p. I. ETTROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPH^' OF ROME. iC 

phrase applied to them, tria theatra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows 
were termed Amphilhealra (P. til. v> 239), of which the most remarkable wa£ the 
Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — I'he Odta were buildings eircn ar 
in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars, and statues, where trials ol 
musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary compositions were exhibited, 
after the manner of the Greeks (P. IV. *$* 65). Those established by Domitian and 
Trajan were the most celebrated. 

9» 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were very 
numerous ; such as were ot a more public character were called IhermcB. In the time 
of the republic, the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been the first 
to erect warm and hot ones for public use. '1 hey were ihen called ihermae, and 
placed under the direction of the (sdiles. Agrippa, while he was aedile, increased the 
number of thermcB to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than 
800 in imperial Rome. The Ihenncc Diodetia7iiv,'ere especially distinguished ior their 
extent and magnificence (cf. P. IV. <n 241. h). '1 hose of Nero, 'l itus, Domiiian, and 
especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor. 

^ 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures in which the 
various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequently mentioned 
are the Ludur- ]\Iagnuft, Satjitinus, Dacicuft, and JEmilhis. 1 here were also several 
structiires for exhibiting naval engagements, called NaumachicB ; as Naumachla Au- 
gusti, Domiliani. (Cf. P. III. § 233.) 

Finally, there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs, and called NymplKPa; one 
particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and water-falls, and was adorned 
with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. II. ^ 101. 

% C-)^. The Porticos or Piazzas (porilcus) were very numerous. These were covered 
f'olonnades, adorned with statues, and designed as places for meeting and walking for 
pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; sometimes connected with other 
large buildings, such as basilicas, theatres, and the like. The most splendid was that 
of Apollo's temple, on Mount Palatine; and the largest, the one called MiUiaria or 
]\lilliare?i!ii!( (i.e. of the 1000 columns). Courts were sometimes held in porticos; 
and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. IV. <5» 237. 

The city was adorned with Triumphal arches {arcus trh/mphales), to the number ot 
36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (P. IV. § 188). Some of them 
were very magnificent ; as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus, - 
and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of a square figure, with a 
large arched gale in the middle, and a small one at the sides. 

'^ 67. There were single pillars or columns, cohanncs, also erected to commemorate 
particular victories, t. g. those of D;illius, Trajan, and Antoninus. Ruins of the 
first, as has been supposed, were discovered in 1560 (cf. P. IV. § 133. 1). The last 
two are still standing, and are reckoned among the most precious remains of anti 
quit'y (cf. P. IV. § 188, 2). — With great labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt, 
of which those still existing, having been conveyed there by Augustus, Cahgula, and 
Constantius the second, are the most remarkable. 

Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the temples, but 
also in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than eighty of a colossal 
size are mentioned. 

There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, irapcp.u These were trunks 
of marl)le, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils takeii from the enetny, 
cspeciallv the weapons of war. There are two trunks of marble decorated like tro- 
phies still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have been erected by Marius for his 
victories over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. 

^ 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aqncp.duchis, should 
be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant supply of water, 
and irreat expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. There were H of 
the larger sort, besides others of less importance; the Aqua Appia, Marcia, Virg'^. 
Chnidia, Sepilmia, and Alsieiina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs {lacus) 
were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. 

Snnip of the aqueducts brousht wafer more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountains, 
and over valleys, supported on arches, sometirnes above 100 feet high. The care of these origi- 
nally heloneed to the asdiles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, calUid 
evratores aqvnrnm. 

R. Fnhretti .Ve A(|U3?ductibus veterls Rnnine. Rom. 16'0. 4. — / Rmideht, Frfnch Translation of fronlinus on the AquHuc'tol 
Rome. Cf. P. V.§49l. — F. .B. roller, The Croton Aqueduct ; with an Account of similar Works Ancient and Modern. N. Y. 1843. 

The Cloaca were also works of great cost and of very durable structure. They were a sort of 
Bewers or drains, some of them very large, passinsr under the whole city, and discharginjr wa 
various inipurities into the Tiber Many private houses stood directly upon the cloaca;. These 
were under the charge of officers styled curatores cloacarum. The principal was the Cloaca 
Maxima, built by Tarquinius Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M Agrippa; it was 16 feet broad 
and 30 feet high, formed of blocks of hewn stone. The Pantheon ($ 59) was over it. 

See Stuart's Oict. of Architecture, cited P. IV. ^ 238. 3.— M'cMiftrV Hist, of Rome, Eng. Transl. Phil. 1835. vol. i p. 299 

^ 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected (cf. P. ITI 



•20 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



^ 341). We may name here particularly the Mausoleum, of Augustus, of a pvramidica' 
lorm, 385 feet high, wish two obehsks standing near it ; the Moles Hadriani ; and the 
Tomb or P>jramid of Cestius (cf. P. IV. ^ 2-26, P. III. <5> 187. 4). 

^ 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosius, tu 
48,382, including the domus and the insulcs ; the former of which classes comprised, 
according to Gibbon, the " great houses," and the latter the "plebeian habitations" (cf. 
P. III. '^325). Among these buildings were some of great splendor, partly of marble, 
and adorned with statues and colonnades. 

1. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Csesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Neri, 
fhe pahce of Licinius Crassus, Aquilius, Calulus, ^inillus Scaiirus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c.— " The Imperial palace (Palativm) wa, 
the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon tlie Palatine hill, and gave name to the tenth region of the city. The froo 
was on (he Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesia, and also that of ApoHo, which 
Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero ''Utnl 
it, but rebuilt it of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Coelian and 
Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its linii's. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, .silver, statues, paint- 
ings, and treasures of every description, that it received the raiiie of durmis auren. The following emperors stripped it of its orna- 
wenls ; Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Domitian afterwards destroyed the main building. In the 
reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt ; but it was n stored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric it needed 
Btill further repairs ; but this huge edifice substquently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and 
the Villa Spada." 

2. Before the conflagration of the city under Nero, fhe streets were narrow and irregular, and the private houses were incom- 
modious, and some even dangerous from their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofly stories In the time of Nero, 
niore than two-thirds of the city was burnt. Of the ft)urteen districts, only four remained entire. The ci'y was rebuilt with more 
regularity, with streets broader and less crooked (cf. Tac Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were measured out, and the height 
restricted to seventy feet. 

$ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive that its neighborhood was almost one 
immense village; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Cnwpa^va diRoma, is a coiiiplele 
desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martins. The accumulation of ruins 
has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from whHt has been said respecting the 
entrance of the Pantheon ($59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock ($53). 

For notices of Modern Rome, see Piranesi, Vedute dj Roma, 2 vols. fol. (Cf P. IV. § 243. 2 ) — Rome in the Nintleenth Century. 
— W. Fish, as cited P. IV. § 1S6. 6. — Encyclop. Americana, under Mod. Rome, and under Travels in Italy ' and the works there 
cited 

THRACIA. 

^ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Europe (cf. 
^27); and we might include the whole under the term GrcBcia, taken in a very com- 
prehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover 
not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but alsoEpirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, 
and even Thracia. The victories of Phihp having procured him a vote jn the Amphic- 
tyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked 
among the Grecian states. The valor and policy of the Epirdte kings procured the 
same honor for Epirus not long after; and finally, '1 brace was raised to the same dig- 
nity, when it became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Grrecia is rarely 
used in so large a sense : and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and 
include the other countries under Grcecia. 

Thkacia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which separated 
it from Ma'sia; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont, 
which divided it from Asia; on the south by ihe iEgean sea ; and on the west by the 
river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In consequence of the conquests of Philip, 
the river Nessus becanje the mutual boundary of 1 hrace and Macedon, the interme- 
diate district being annexed to the latter country. — The peninsula contained between 
the Bay of Melas and the Hellespont was called ThracicB Chersonesus ; celebrated in 
the wars between Philip and the Athenians. 

§ 73. The capital of Thraco, and at one time of the civilized Morld, was Byza-itium, 
or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from 
its beauty Chrysoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a mat- 
ter of dispute; but it was greatly enlarged and beau'ified by Constantine the Great, 
who, in the fourth century of the Christian era, transferred the seat of government 
hither from Rome. On the division of the Roman empire, this city became the capital 
of fhe Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from 
the vires of the inhabitants, and the imbeciUty of their rulers, it was captured by the 
Turks on the 29th of May. A, D. 1453. 

On the topneraphy of B\rantium, and the changes made by Constantine, see Ducans;e, Histor. Byzanlina. Par. I6S0. fol — G. Co- 
Imus, De Antiquitatibus Coiis'aniinop. Par. 16^5 — Am. Banduri, Imper. Orient, sen Atitiqiiiia psCoisMntinnpoli'anae. Par. 1711. 
1 vols, ffit.— These work« are included in the C'rptis vf Byzandnt fi'Story, noticed P V ^ 239 * — Cf. (Hhhon, ch. rvW.—Jamts 
UaUaway, Constantinople, ancient and modern, — L,^n^• 1797. 4. ffjrth Aoitr. Rto. I6th vol. or Tth of New Jerie*, p. 433. 

The other principal towns were, Salmydessus (Midiieh), celebrated for shipwrecks; 
Thi/itia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni. who colonized Bithynia ir 
\sia Minor; Apollonia, called afterwards Sizopolis (Sizeboli), and Mesemhr'a, built I \ 



1,1 EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRliiiS. GR^CIA. 21 

a colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea. — Silymhria (Selibria), and Perinfhus, 
or Heraclea (Erekli), on the Propontis. — Callipolis (Gallipoli), at the junction of tho 
Propontis and Hellespont; the small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little 
rwev ^gos FoLa7nos ioins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysandcr de- 
stroyed the naval power of the Athenians; and Sesios (Zenunie), where Xerxes built 
his bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos on the Asiatic side are 
also celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander. 

Tlie possibility of swimming across ihe Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron.— » 
On the doubts here alluded to, see De la Name, and Mafiudel, as cited P. V. § 49. 4. 

On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into it, were 
Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants tor a new town ; Lysimachia, 
that he had built a little farther south; and Eion, which was burned by its governor, 
Boges.— In the interior were Traja?iopolis, built by Trajan; and Adrianopolis, its suc- 
cessful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second city of the Turkish empire. — At the 
east mouth of the Hebrus, stood JEnos^, said to have been founded by .^neas. near the 
territory of the Cicones; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his im- 
mense armament after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- 

erous as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nes- 
sus was Abdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the 
stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. 

§ 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated for the 
clearness and rapidity of its waters; Nessus (Nissar), and Strymoji (Jamboli.) — The 
principal mountains were Mount HcBimts, extending from the Euxine sea in a western 
direction between Moesia and Thrace; Rliodope, exiending from the Euxine sea to the 
sources of the Nessus; and Fangceics, extending thence to the north of Maeedon. It 
was on the Pangceus that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have 
been performed (P. V. $ 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, 
approach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, 
which were defended by walls.' — The principal seas and bavs adjoining this extensive 
maritime country were, Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thrachts, Propoiilis, Hellespontus 
Melanis Sivus (Gulf of Saros), and Slrymonicus Shius (Gulf of Contessa). 

$ 75. Thrace v/as anciently possessed by several independent tribes ; ore of these, the Dolovei, 
being hard pressed by the JIbsynthi, their neiglibors, sent lo Delphi to consult the oracle about 
the event of ttie war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the person who shoiilrf 
first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hospitably entertained 
by Miltiades, the son of Cypseliis; they immediately requested him to accompany them to the 
Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accepted the invitation. — On 
his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians were soon after defeated. He 
fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous 
reign beqtieathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stesagoras dying after a short reign, 
his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratida; as his successor. He had not 
reigned long, when Darius, king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoenicians against the Chersone.se, 
and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens. — The ('heisonose, after 
the defeat nf the Persians, was princi|)ally posse.«sed liy the Atheniiins, who colonized all the 
coast. The interior of Thrace ri'mained subject to the native princes, until the whole country 
was united to Maeedon by Philip and Alexander. 

GR.ffiCIA. 

76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already remarked 
($ 72), under G RiE 01 A , using this name in what is commonly considered its most 
comprehensive sense (cf. P. III. $ 2). '^Jhe extensive region ihtis included in Graecia 
presents /owr general divisions, which are obviously suggested by the na:ural face of 
the country. The 1st is that part which lies north of the chain of mountains called 
Carntmnii, which are connected by the Stymplioei Monies with the Aero Ceraunii . the 
2d is the part between the Cambunii on 'lie tH)rth, and another line of highlands and 
mountains on the south, which may he traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to 
the Sinus Aitibracius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it I'orms the pass of T lier- 
mopyla3, and the chain is in this portion of it -called CEfo ; as it stretches back in a 
northerly and then westerly direcuun, it is called Findus; this sends down a spur from 
the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Atniiracius, where ii forms another pass 
corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east : ihc 3cl is the part between the 
mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth. Si7ius Co- 
rbithiachs and Sinua Sarnniciis : and the 4th is the peninsula connec'ed to the main 
by that isthmus. The fir tU is Macedonia; the second, Epi;us and 'ihessulia; the 
third, Hellas; ^he fourth, Peloponnesus. 

V^ 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the na:ural divisions above 
described, was bounded W. Itythe Mare Hadria iciim ; N. by lilyricum and i^ op 
sia; E. by 1 hracia, from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nes 
tus flowing from Rhodope; S. by the JE.^scum Mare, the Cambunii Monies and iho 
other mountains forming the chain already mentis ed, which terminates in the Acp" 
Ccaunii on the western extremity. 



22 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. IIcBtnui 
and Mt. Iihodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a single 
chain; this was called Orbehis Mons ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed running 
down south through Macedonia, and forming a connection with the Slymphoii, or Mons 
Stymphn, already named, between the Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters cast 
of this spur flow to the ^Egean ; those west of it, to ihe Hadriaiic. 

"^t 78. 'The principal river of the west was the Vr'do (Drino), which runs through 
Lake Lyc/midus, and empties imo a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called 
Ni/mphanun Promo7itoriinn. — One of the most important places in this western por- 
tion \vas Apollnnia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek 
hterature (P. V. § 9) for its cultivation,, and said to be the place where Augustus ac- 
quired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy 
of notice, Epidanmus, further north, called Dyrrachlum by the Romans, the place 
where travelers from Italy to Greece generally landed, 'i his portion, west ot the 
spur, was taken from Illyricum by Philip {RoWu, B. 14. § 1). 

^ 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice three most 
considerable rivers; the HaHacmou (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to 
the Sinus Thermaicus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising 
in the heigh's between Macedonia and Moesia, and running S. to the head of the same 
gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west 
before it? discharge; the Strymon, n^mg in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus 
Sfrymunicus (Gulf of Contessa). — Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the 
peninsula sometimes called Chntcidice, and presenting pecuhar features, having a 
cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two 
bays, the Toronaicas (G. of Cassandra), and the Singelicus (G. of Monte Sancto). The 
western of these smaller peninsulas was Pallene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the 
oattle between Jupiter and the Giants {Ov. x. 151); the eastern was marked by Mt. 
AihoSy extending several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated 
for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. 
Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. 

^80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are 
not important, even if they ("ould be accurately traced. Pceonia was in the northern 
part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. The southern 
part on the w^est of the Sinus Thermaicus was Pieria. Emaihia was north of Pieria, 
and of the same gulf. 

E m at hi a was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, the ori- 
ginal capital of the country, on the Erigon; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequent!)! 
made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus 'i'her 
maicus, was ThermcB, afterwards called Thessalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment 
and the capital of the country as a Roman province. 

At Thessalonica there still remains an ancient structure which is supposed by some to have been A-Cahirian temple (cf. P. "J 
5 129. 2) ; a vievv of it is ^iven in our Plate V. 

On the peninsula which has been described (§ 79) were Pofidcea, or Cassandria, on the 
neck oi' Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander; Oly?ithus, memorable 
for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; Chalcis, which 
gave name lo the region; Slagira (Stagros), on the eastern coast, the birthplace of Aris- 
totle.— In Pieria. one of the most memorable places was Pyrf^io. (Kitra), where Olym- 
pias was murdered by Ca&sander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmihus made 
a pris'jner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on the 
coast,, was Melhone, at the seige of which Philip lost his right eye. — In Edonis were 
two important towns; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an 
Athenian colony; Philippi, further east, near Mons Pangeeus, a branch from Rho- 
dope. 

The lattpr was built by Philip, fcr the same purpose for which the Athenians bnilt Antiphipoiis ; 
tn secure the valuable gold and silver iiiin^s found in this region. It is celebrated for the battle 
ih which Bnittis and Cassius were defeated by Anjiistiis and Antony, B. C. 42; and memorable 
as (he place where Paul and Silas, having been "thrust into the inner prison, with their feet 
Tist in the stocks, {Jlcis xvi. 25) at midnight sang praises unto God." 

The si'e of Phi ippi is still niarkerl by ruins (Miss. Hanld, Se[it. 1836, p. 334). — Like most of Ihe Grecian cities, if was at the foo. 
of a hill or mount nn which was its Acropolis A view of the Acropolis and of the plain t-elow is given in our Plate IV. A traveler 
nn li.:rspback is advinrins on the road froin Neapolis to Philippi ; he is just passinir a mouern Turkish buryin^ground on his right 
iian I under a near hill ; Ihe Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at the right ; at the base of this eniinence, wa« 
Ihe lov.er city, on the south and souili-west ; farther to the south is an open plain ; the moun'ain on the left is the southern extremity 
if Pansxtts 

J 81. The kingtiom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caramis. a descendant of Her 
ftiles, B C. 81t ; but it did not acquire consennence until the reign of Philip, who ascended the 
Ih'OMe B. r. ;?60. It has been stated, that 150 different nations or tribes were finally included 
vithin its limits. , 

^8? (2) Epirus and-THESSALiA, embraced in the second natural division pointed 
' n C^ 7b), are next to be* noticed. 
Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain embosomed ii: 



PLATE TV. 




24 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

mountains. The Camhunii and Olymjms were on the north; Pelion arid Ossa on the 
rast ; Pindus on the west ; and QLiu on the south : so that only the small portion of 
coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus ar;d the Sinus Maliucus is without the guard of 
mountains ; and even this has a guard a httle in the interior, by I\Ll. Olhrys, which 
strikes across irom Pindus to Pelion. 

The extensive plains of Tliessaly were peculiarly fiivornhle tn the lireeriin<i of liorses ; and the 
Tliessalians were the first who introduced the use nf ca\aliy, Imrses having been, al first, only 
used for draught. Hetice, perhaps, arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of '^lIes^aly, who 
were supposed to have been half man aid half hoise. The 'I'hessalian cavalry maintained 
their superiority to a very iate period, and to them Phili|) was indebted for many of his victoiies. 

^'^ The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pelasgi, an 
. ■ -.4 : wanderirg tribe, who are supposed to have been the first inhabitants ot Greece 
(f- IV^- ^ 33). l"he principal cities in P.elasgiotis weie Larissa, the capital ot the 
province ; Gonipki, destroyed by Caesar ; Gnnnus and Gi/iiana, near the entrance of 
the vale of Tnnpe, so celebrated for its natural beauties; Scolussa, near which are 
some hills, called, from their shape, Cijnos Cephale, where Philip was defeated by 
'*.:untus Flaminius ; and Pharsalus, near which, in a plain called Pharsalia, Pompey 

was overthrown by Caesar. '1 he eastern part of 1 hessaly was named Magnesia; 

the most remarkable places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same 
name, where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being 
shattered in a storm; Demetrias (Vloo), built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which, 
from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring 
towns; Melihcea, the city of Philoctetes ; lolcos, the residence of Jason and Medea; 
PagascB, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgicus is some- 
times caWvd Pagas(Eus: Ap/iefce (Fetio), whence the Argonautic expedition sailed; 
P/ierce, the residence of the tyrant Alexander; and Thtbce, near the -river Amphrysus, 

where Apollo fed the herds of king Admetus. -In the southern parts of 1 hessaly 

were Media, which gives name to the Mahac bay; Larissa, called Cremasf.e from ita 
sloping situation, the capital of the kingdom of Achilles; Alos, at the foot of mount 
Othrys, near which the coinbat between the Centaurs and Lapithse took place ; Phy 
lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where the musical con- 
test between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypata, famous for the magical 
arts of its women (Hor. Ep. 5) ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruitlessly besieged by 
the Athenians; and Trachis (Zeiton), celebrated for its desperate resistance when be- 
seiged by the Romans, 

'^ 84. 'i'he mountains have been mentioned above (^ 82) . The most remarkable 
river was the Peneus, which flows through the vale of Tewz;)e into the iEgean sea. This 
river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until flercules opened a passage for the waters 
between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The principal inlets of the ^-Egean sea, on the 
'Phessalian coast, were Sifius Pelasgicus or Pagasasus (Gulf of Volo), and Siitus Ma' 
liacus (Gulf of Zeiton). 

$85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of the first events 
recorded in profane history; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion, and his wife Pyrrha,are said 
to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the hinnan race might be re- 
•etored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them ; 
Ihoae thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrba women. In this fable the history 
of some ftartial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. 

The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the 
bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. II. $ 127). — Achilles was the most remarkable 
Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle 
had foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy; to prevent \his, his 
mother concealed him at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he 
begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last discovered by 
!Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of Priam. 

During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta, Thessaly seems to have been of little importance. 
The greater |)art of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. It was cruelly 
devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian and Syrian kings; it also suf- 
fered verysevereily in the civil wars between Cajsar and Pompey. 

§ 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often included. 
We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north the mountains Cambunii and 
Aero ('eraunii^ and on the south, the Sinus Ambracius ; but the region called Orestis 
between the Aero Ceraunii and the river Aous is commonly termed a province of Epi- 
rus ; and Acarnania. within the proper limits of fieilas, is also often considered as 
"•no'her province. In all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus ; 
while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included 
fhe provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 

^87. Chaonia was the portion tmder the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be 
■named from Chaon, the brother of Ilelenus son of Priam. 1 hese mountains were so 
railed from their summits {^Kfio) being oiten struck with lightning (x-tpai/j/oj) ; they were 
remarkable for n'ttracting storms, and were dreaded bymariners; the rocks at the west- 
tcrn extremity of their southern branch, Acro-Ceninnia. were called infamous {infnmei). 
-The nrincipal ^-own'^ were Oricumm the extreme north, on the coast between the 



Po I, EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GR^CIA. 25 

branches of the mountains just mentioned ; and Anckesmus also on the coast and in the 
extreme south of the province. 

Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Si?ius Ambraclus ((Julf 
of Arta). Its principal places were,Buthrohim on the river Xanthus, near which ^Eneas 
is said to have landed on his flight from 'I'roy to Italy ; and Ephyra^, on the river Acne- 
ron, flowing to the harbor called Qlycijs Limen {yXvKvs Xij^fii'). The river Acheron ig 
joined at its mouth by the Cocytus. — I'hese two streams were ranked in the ancient 
mythology among Xaq jlumlna inferorum, or infernal rivers; three others had the same 
rank; the Styx, in Arcadia; the Lethe, in BcBotia probably; and the Phlegelhon, the 
location of which, as an actual river, is unknown, although it is represented sometimes 
as uniting with the Acheron. 

1 Ephyra was subsequently railed Ciohyrus; the ruins of its walls are said to be still visible. — Hughes, Travels in Greece and 
Albania. Lend. 1820. 2 vols. 4. 

M o 1 o s s i s was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. The Mo- 
lossian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. Among the principal towns were 
Ambracia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the river Araclhus or Arethon ; and 
Pasaaro, where the kings of Epirus took the coronation oath. 

Dodona, famous for its oracle and temple of Jupiter (cf. P. III. % 71), at the foot of 
Mount Tomarus, is placed by some in Molossis ; by others in Thesprotia ; it was in the 
Hellopia, not far from the river Thyamis, which rises in Mt. Stymphe and Hows through 
Thesprotia to the Mare Ionium. 

The French traveler Pouqueville found in Hellopia, in the modern district of Jinina, near the village Gardiki, westerly from 
the lake of Janina, some ruins of Cyclopean character, which he judged to be the ruins of Dodona ; includins; rennainsof the temple 
of the Dodonean Jupiter and the sacred enclosure of the Selli. — Cf. Pouqaeville, Voyage de la Grece. Par. 1 826. 6 vols. 8. vol. i. 
p. 125-197. — Hughes, above cited, vol. i. p. 511. 

$88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history tintii the Macedonian Empire 
was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto heen 
looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Miicedonians, began to take a lead in the 
affairs of Greece. — The folly of Pyrrhiis, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival the 

conqtiests of Ale.xander in the east, weakened Iheir forces and diminished their authority. 

On the- invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian lil)erty with a 
desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been 
achieved by Paulus iEmiJius, enrasred at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to 
be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves; an instance of atrocious re- 
venge scarcely to be parallelled in history. 

When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Mahometans, the remnants of the Christian force* 
retreated to the fastnesses of the mountains of Suli and the town of Parga in this territory. — The Sulioles, after perforuiing feats o( 
valor only to be parallelled in the brighter days of Grecian freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously massacred ; and 
Parsa, after many vicissitudes, fell under the power of Turkey. — For an account of Parga, cf Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. p. 111. 

^ 89. (3) Our third division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. (Eta and 
the large gulfs. Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is properly termed 
Hellas, and is also called Grjecia Propria. 

This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the east are first 
the waters of the Sinus Maliacics, then of the Simts Opwitius and those between the 
mainland and Euboea, which are called in the narrowest place Etcripus. Leaving these 
and drawing near the southern point of the country, you enter the Myrtoum Mare, and 
having passed that point, Sunmm Promontorium, with the splendid temple of Minerva 
in sight, you proceed up the Sinus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you 
must take a land carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), 
when you reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepanto). — This opens into Hellas 
several bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare, and another central 
arfd opening to the north called Sinus Crissceus (Bay of Salona). — Continuing the sur- 
vey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Corinthiacus through the strait 
called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Rhium on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb 
of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the opposite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and 
continue in the Mare Ionium, till having gone through the artificial channel separating 
Leucas from the mainland, you turn round the Promontorium Aclium and enter the 
Sinus Ambracius, which ends the tour, and the eastern extreinity of which is not more 
than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, from the Sinus Maliacus, where the ima- 
ginary tour began. 

^ 90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence look down 
apon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number of hills and moun- 
tains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its summits might seem to rise 
up over the country in disorder and confusion, but soon he would trace some obvious 
lines of connection. He would perceive one line of siimmits strefcliinfr from ^It. CEla 
at ThermQpyl<B down parallel to the eastern coast and to the island Eubcea as far as 
to the strait Euripus. — He would observe another of tnore lofty and attractive suntmits 
proceeding from Pindus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliacus and Sinus 
Ambracius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off' on its right a 
line of minor summits down to the western ex'remity of the Sinus Corinthiacus, but 
r.self bending to the south-east, and at length verging along the shore of that gulf to 



'-JG CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

US eastern extremity, and there connecting with the Geranii Monies and Mons OnciuA 
on the isthmus, and with Mo7i,s CithcBron, which proceeds dtrectly east to the sea south 
of tiie straits of Euripus. — 'Ihe part ot this hne joining Pindus includes probably the 
mountains in which the ancient Dryopis dwelr. 'ihe first part of the brunch which 
it sends otf to the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination of this branch at the 
gulf is in the summits called Taphiassiis and Chalcis. — In the main line bending to the 
south-east occur first Parnassus, which although of barren soil was celebrated for its 
green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation; \hen Helicon, wiih its jountain 
Hippocrene, which started into existence (according to fable) from the stamping of Pe- 
aasus (cf. P. II. § 117 /). — After this, as you turn eastward, appears CilhcBron, which 
has a summit in the eastern part, called Fames. — In the territory south of these, were 
several summits, particularly Pe7j.«eZic?ts, famous for its marble, north-east from Athens; 
ITymettas, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius, containing 
the silver mines, in the southern extreme of Attica. — Aracynihus was a chain in 
iEtolia. 

§ 91. Heixas contained eight small, but independent provinces or districts. Thebe 
were, beginning on the west, Acarnania, Mtolia, Doris, Locris, Phocis, Boeofia, Ate- 
garis, Attica. 

/rhe two western districts Acar?iania and M,tolia were very inferior to the rest in 
fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer aspect than in some 
other districts. 

^92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabitants were 
noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded {% 76) to the natural 
boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz., the Si?ms Ambracius and the spur of 
mou?itai?ts running from Pindus down to that bay. This line of highlands is now 
called Makrinoros , which nam« is also given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and 
steep termination near the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylae. The boundary 
between Acarnania and the next district of Hellas, ^tolia, is the river Achelous, rising 
among the valleys of Mt. Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. 

Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Ampkilochius, on the river Inachus 
emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius; Anactorium, on a peninsula 
forming the north-western corner of the district ; Actium, a little further to the east, on 
the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus gained his great naval 
victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate it, built a town called Nico- 
poUs, and instituted games celebrated every third year, called Actia. — Leucas was on 
the northern point of the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Pelopon- 
nesian war, but after that separated by an artificial channel. On the south part was a 
temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucale, from whicb the despairing Sappho is said 
to have thrown herself (cf. P. V. ^ 54). — Stratus, once its metropolis, was on the 
Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo. 

§93. JEaXoWb. was east of Acarnania, separated by the n\ ex Achelous ; it is now 
called Vlakia, froni a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors gave this pro- 
vince. Its other chief river was the Evemis (Fideri), falling into the Corinthian bay , 
this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. 

The following are the chief places; Calydon on the Evenus, xmder Mt. Chalcis , 
a^^sociated with the story of the Caledonian boar (destroyed by the son of the king of 
^tolia), whose tusks were said to have been preserved in Greece until Augustus carried 
.hem to Rome as curiosities; Thermus, the ancient capital, in the interior, or between 
.he Evenus and Lake Trichonis. — Nanpuctus, on the Sinus Corinlhiaciis, under Mt^ 
Taphiassus, was not included in the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this pro- 
vince by Philip of Macedon ; it was said to have its name from pav<: and nftyvvin, be- 
cause the Herachdse built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. 

^94. D oris, a very small district, lay under Mt. Pindus, between OEta on the east 
9iid the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus on the south-west and 
neing separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the south-east ; thus wholly sur- 
rounded by mountains. It was called Doris from Dorus, son of Deucalion, ancient 
monarch of Thessaly. It was a rockv, mountainous region. Its towns were situated 
on the river Pindus, "a branch of the Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. 
From its four towns Pindus, Erinenm, Boium, and Cytinium. it was called TetrapoUs ; 
and sometimes Hexapolis. the tw-o places LiJceum and Carphin being added. 

*^ 95. Locris consisted of two parts separated from each other. — The larger part 
was on the Sinus Corinlhiacus, having ^"Etolia on the west, and Phocis on the east 
(parllv separated ^rom it bv the Si/nm CrisscEus). The inhabitants of this part were 
called Western Locri, or Eocri Resperii and Locri Oznlcp. Of the origin of the latter 
name, different accounts are given : the people are said to have disliked the name 

exceedingly. One of their principal places was Amphissa, in the interior, where 

was a temple to M.mer\^..—Naup(lcln!< {% 93) originally belonged to them. 

§ 96. The other and. smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of Hellas, on 
•he wat >rs separating it -from Euboea. It was north-east of Phocis and Boeotm, divided 
'"•om t>ern by a chain of mountains, and exter.ding from Mount CEla oti the north tc 



p. 1. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 2? 

the Platanms, a small river flowing to the channel of Eubcea, and separating Locris 

from BoBOtia, on the south. This part was inhabhed by two tribes. — The Opuutii 

were in the southern region, so called from their principal chy Opus, which gave 
name also to the bay adjacent, Sinus Opunlius, containing a small island, Alalatila. 
The port of Opus, called Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or 
people were the Epicnemidii, so named from Mount Cnemis. On this there was a 
small town of the same name : other places of note were Naryx, the city of Ajax, 
son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Aiithela, where the Amphictyonic council'assembled 
annually in a temple of Ceres or Thesmophora [the lawgiver) as she was here called, 
in allusion to the council. 

Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of ThermopyloB, deriving their 
name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This celebrated 
pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated 
between the ridge of Mount (Eta and the Mahan gulf, at the junction of the three 
countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful of men, 
bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather than violate the 
Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king 
of Syria, was defeated by the consul AciUus. 

DMring the struggles of the modern Greek revolution (cf. P. IV. § 85. 2), two signal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks ovei 
their Turkish oppressors on the same inspiring spot.— A plan of the pass, illustrating the contest between Leonidas and the Persians, 
is given in EarlheUniy^s Anacharsis, cited P. V. § 153. 2. 

§97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian 
gulf to the borders of Thessaly. 

The capital was Elafea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Phihp firs' 
awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian 
monarch. West of Elatea w^as Delphi, on mount Parna?sus, celebrated for the oracle 
of Apollo (P. in. "?> 72), and for the annual meetings of the Amphictyonic council 
(P. III. % 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village called Caslri. Parnas- 
sus (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus; the 
town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring 
emiiiencea, close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were 
celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha, on the 
small river Plistus, falUng into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Delphi ; 
near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and sometimes the 
whole gulf, was called Crissaeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated for the production of hel- 
lebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, which is sometimes con- 
founded with a river of the same name in Attica. 

a A view rf Delphi and the heigh-tg of Parnassus is presented on page xii. of this Manual, as given by Bocoge, in Barthelemy's Ana- 
charsis. — A plan of Delphi, with explanations, is found in Dissen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 628, as cited P. V. § 60. 4. 

$ 98. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for t!ie 
common liberties of Greece; in revense, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the 
country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by 
earthquakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- 
ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder. About 2S0 B. C, a large body 

of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated under cir- 
cumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. 

§ 99. Boeotia occupied the north-east of Graecia Propria, on the shores of the 
Euripus, a narrow strait between the island of Euboea and ihe continent. 

The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first introduced let- 
ters into Greece (cf. P. IV. § 45). The city stood on the river Isnic-m/s, and was 
ornamented with seven gates, whence it is called Hepfapi/los. It was the birthplace 
of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious 
warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was. from its founder, 
called Cadmea. — South of this was PlalcBu, where the Persian army were totally 
destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, andPlateans : it was after- 
wards destroyed by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuc- 
tra, near lake Copais, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas; Coronea, 
near mount Helicon; Chaeron'o, where Phihp, having defeated the Athenians a'ld 
Thebans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lehadea, remarkable for the tempie 
of Trophonius ; and Orchome?ius, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to 
Venus. — Nearthe Corinthian gulf was Thespicp., sacred to the Muses, having a por* 
named Creusa; and Asc-n. the birthplace of the poet Hesiod — On the Euripus wert; 
Aulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of 
Ipliigenia's sacrifice ; Tanasra. where ihe celebrated poeiess Corinna was born ; and 
Deliiim, a village which derived its name from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation 
of that at Delos, and was the place wliere Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved 
the life of his pupil Alcibiades. 

^ 100. The chief mountains of BoBO*ia were Helicon, with the fountains Aganippe 
^nd Hippncrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Phocis, dedicated 

5 



28 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

10 the same divinities , Dirce, near Thebes ; and Cithceron, on the borders of Mega- 
ris, sacred to Bacchus. 

The people of Boeolia were usually described as riaturally stupid, but with apparently little 
JHsiice ; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and ihe barbarous custom of ex- 
posing children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been 
accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. In the heroic aees, Thebes seems to 
have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the 
discovery of the truth is very ditiicult. Ii certainly declined in after times ; probably the misfor- 
liines and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed the 
spirit of the people. 

§ 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight miles square, 
south of mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megaru, 
situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far Irom the 
Sinus Saro?iicus; its port was iVi.s<Eo, taken and destroyed by Pericles. The only 
other place of note was Crommyon, near the Scironian rocks : these were said to be 
very dangerous, and to have derived their name irom Sciron, a notorious pirate and 
robber. 

§ 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, and south 
of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 miles wide at 
its base on the north, and tapering until it terminates in the point called Sunium, pro- 
jecting into the Myrtoum Mare, east oi the Sinus Saronicus (gulf of Engia). It was 
also called Acte (.dKTh) from its maritime situation. 'I'he capital was Athens, a more 
full description of which we shall give below. 

§ 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Wlaralhon, where the first Persian in- 
vaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely routed by 
the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. North of this was the village Rhamnus, 
where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy 
of their anticipated victory, was erected to the goddess Nemesis: a httle to the east 
was Phyle, a strong fort, which was occupied by 'I'hrasybulus, in his expedition 
against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus, where there 
was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was 
AcharncB, where the Lacedemonians encamped when they invaded Attica ; and De- 
celia, which they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens was Brauron, 
where the statue of Diana, brought from 'i'aurus by Orestes, was preserved until 
taken away by Xerxes; and Sunium, a town and promontory at the south-eastern 
extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva (from the ruins of 
which it is now called Cape Colonna), and is in modern times remarkable as the scene 
of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer. — West of Athens was Eleusis, 
where the Eleusinian mysteries in honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two 
remarkable temples at Eleusis; that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus. 

^104. Topog raphy -oi' Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Cecrops, an 
Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first it was called 
Cecropia, from the name of its founder; and afterwards 'A^»7i/a«, Athens, in honor 
of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called '\^fivri), because she was the pro- 
tectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, it was one of the largest and most 
beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in 
going around it ; according to other and more exact computations, it was about one 
hundred and seventy-eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles; and 
Dion Chrysostom reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Ro- 
man miles in circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much 
larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles at 
least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. — The number of gates is not 
known ; thirteen are named by Bobinso7i ; the largest was called AtVuXoi/, and was near 
the Ceramicus; the 'lepa. vvas that leading to Eleusis. 

For a plan of Athens, see our Plate I., by wtiich the reader may learn the situation of the principal parts and buildings. — The 
le»cription here given, is drawn chiefly from RobiiisoiVt Archaeologia Graeca. 

^ 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the east to the 
Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Fames on the north, and Hymettus on 
the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus surrotmded by natural ramparts, we 
behold the very singular geological feature of six insular mountain rocks standing in regu- 
lar succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend from Pentelicus westward to 
the sea. The one nearest the sea is called the hill of Muscr.us. On the next is the A(ro- 
polis of Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mf. Anrhesrnus, on the summit 
of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter; from this eminence an observer 
could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — ^^Two streams furnished their 
waters to ihe city. One was the Jlissus, which flowed to the cast and south o^ the 
city, and which is supposed, from the appearance ot its channel and from the allusions 
3t the poets, to have been anciently much larger than it has been seen in modern 

times. The other, Cephjssus, was still smaller and ran on the other side. Athens 

mav ^\e described in fvo parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on the summit of the 



p. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 29 

hill termed Acropolis {aKponoXig), and called the upper city, fi avw rroXt? ; and the part 
built afterward, f] kutoj n6\ig, or the lower city. 

The hill nr Acropolis, as distinguished from the lower part, is distinctly seen in the fitw of Athens given in our Plate IX a, oc 
page 80; which is taken from /. C. Hobhouse's Journej' through Albania and other provinces of Turkey, &c. Lond. 1813 

2 vols. 4. — The Grecian method of thus connecting an Acropolis with their towns, is also illustrated ty <jr Plaie IV. cf. § 80. 

^ J Of Die citadel, or upper cily, was sixty citadia iii circumference, and was tenced 
with Wooden pales, or, as some say, was surrounded wiih olive-nees. It was fortiiied 
on the south side by a strong wall, which was built by Cimon. the son of Miltiades, 
from the spoils taken in the Persian war, and which was called ii-iiJiMviov teTxos- 'l',he 
north wall was built many ages before by Agrolas^ or according to some, by Euryaius 
and Hyperbius, two brothers, who tirst laught ihe Athenians the art ot building houses. 
This wall was denominated neAao-j-t/cd^ or HeXapyiKoi/, irom the Pelasgi, the name of 
its founders. This wall was beautilied with nine gates, Irom which it is sometimes 
called 'Evi/tdiivXov; but though there were several lesser gates, there was one grand en- 
trance into the citadel, the TloomiXaia, to which the Athenians ascended by steps covered 
with white marble, and which was built by Pericles at great expense. Over this en- 
trance is one of those enormous slabs of marble called "marble beams" by Wheeler, 
and to v'hich Pausanias particularly alluded when, in describing the Propylaea, he 
says that even in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship or the 
magnitude of the stones used in the building had ever been seen. 

The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, statues, and 
monuments, on which the ancient stories were fully described, i he noble siatues of 
Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, 1 imotheus, and other Athenian generals, were here 
intermingled with those of the gods. 

Here was the temple of Minerva, called Nt<>y or Victory, constructed of white mar- 
ble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. • ^ 

§ 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately trample of 'Minerva, called 
Parthenon, because tha' goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was 
dedicated by the daughters oi Rrechtheus, who v>'ere particularly called Trap^ivoi, vir- 
gins. It was also denominated ' EKardimedov, hecause it was one hundred feet square. 
It was burnt by the Persians, but restored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on 
each side. It was of the Doric order, and built ot that beautiful whiie marble found 
in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this tetnple was the statue 
of Minerva, so celebrated tor its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquisite 
beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits 
high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in 
length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. 

A view of the Parthenon is given- in our Plate XXI. fig 1. cf P. HI. §%. On Ihe bas-relief taken from it by Lord Elgin, cf. P. IV 
5 190. On the works of Phidias, cf P. IV. § 179. 

Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a double 
building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'Epex^^i''*^ which 
was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when 
he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple 
was consecrated to JNeptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed TloXiag, 
the protectress of the city, and HavSpocTos, Irom one of the daughters of Cecrops of that 
name. Here, so late as the second century of the Christian a^ra, was the sacred olive- 
tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as 
the foundation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said 
to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by 
dragons, called oiKovprn o(pei<;, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl be- 
fore it. The whole structure was called 'Epix^tiov. Both these buildings still rernain. 
The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 2] feet 

3 inches in t)readth. The larger is 63^ feel in length, and 36 feet in breadth. The roof 
is supported by channeled-Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a. 

Behindnhe temple of Minerva stood the piihlic treasury, which from its situation was 
called 'O7rt<r-5djfj^os, and in which, besides other public money, a thousand talents were 
deposited for any very great exiijencv of the stafe. 

In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter 'ZMrfip, and of 
Minerva Sf.3r£tpa; (he temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, or rather of Mi 
nerva, who was worshiped undpr that name, in the front and steep side of the inck . 
and the temple of Venus, 'In-rruXvTeia, consecrated by Phcedra, when in love with Hyp- 
polyfus. 

'^ 108. The lowpr city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the citade'v 
with Munychia, Phalerum, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls of unequal 
strength, built at difTerent times and by different persons. The principal parts of Ihe 
walls were the Maxpa rzixv^ which joined the harbor of Piraeus to the city, and which 
being about five miles in length, were sometimes called Mavjou oksXt), long le^s, and 
hrachia long-a, long arms. They consisted of two sides. The wall on the norib sine 
was built by Pericles at great expense, and continued forty stadia. That on the souf»^ 



IV a. 




P.I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 31 

side was called Nortoj/ reFxo?, or i^apa ixiaov ruxn, to distinguish it from the south wall 
of the citadel, and sometimes rtlxoi (paXripiKov, because it included the port of Phalerum. 
It was built by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not cemented together with mor- 
tar, but fastened on the outside by iron and leaden cramps'. The height of it was forty 
cubits, but Themistocles wished to raise it to eighty cubits. Its length was thirty-five 
Btadia. Upon both of the walls was erected a great number of turrets, which, after 
the Athenians became so numerous that the city could not contain them, were'con- 
rerted into dwelhng-houses. The Mowixiop, or wall that encompassed the Munychia, 
and joined it to the Pirseus, contained sixty stad'ia; and the exterior wall on the othei 
side was forty-three stadia in length; and hence it appears, as has been before ob- 
served, that the whole circumference of Athens was 178 stadia, or rather more than 22 
Roman miles. 

§ 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarkable were 
the following. — Uoix-eiotf was a stately edifice, in which were kept the sacred utensils 
used at festivals, and in which were prepared all things necessary for solemn proces- 
sions. — The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and Minerva, situaied not far from the 
Ceramicus within the chy, was a public prison. — Near to this building was the temple 
of the Heavenly Venus ; for the Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of 
which one was designated Ovpavia, and the other YlavSruj.oi: the former presided over 
chaste and pure love; the latter was the patroness of lust and debauchery. — 'AvaKciot 
was a temple of Castor and Pollux, who were called avaKeg. In this place slaves were 
exposed to sale. 

The temple of Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, near the 
place where the youths employed themselves in wresthng and other bodily exercises. 
This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons of low condition that fled 
from the persecution of men in power, in commemoration of Theseus, who, when 
alive, was the guardian and protector of the distressed. 

Speaking of the temple of Theseus, Dr. Clarke observes, that this beautiful Doric temple'more 
resembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of Paestiim than of Minerva in the Acro- 
polis, and the most entire of any of the remaining structures of ancient Greece, were it not for 
the damage which the sculptures have sustained, may be considered as still perfect. The entire 
editice is of Pentelican marble ; it stands east and west, the principal front facing the east ; and 
it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a range of eleven columns, ex- 
clusive of the columns on the angles. 

A view of this temple is given in Pla(e XXI. fig. 3. 

§ 110. 'OXvix-mov, or 'OXvixneXov, was a temple of Ionic architecture, erected in honor of 
Jupiter the Olympian, and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, or 
peribolus, within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was con- 
structed with double TOWS of columns, 10 feet in front, and 21 in flank, amounting in 
all to 124 ; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the flank more 
than 400. These pillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and stately temple. 
The foundation of this edifice was laid by Pisistratus^whose sons continued the work ; 
but it was not completely finished till the time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure 
had been commenced. 

The temple oi Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the citadel, 
iji a cave or grotto, which was called Ma^pat irerpai, or KtKpoiriai rdrpai. — The temple 
o\ Diana, surnamed Auo-t^w/zoj, because in it women, after the birth of their first child, 
dedicated their girdles to that goddess. 

Uav^eov was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who, as they were united in one 
edifice, were honored with one common festival, which was called Qtolivia. This was 
also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 pillars of marble. On 
the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story of all the gods ; and on one 
great gate two horses were carved by Praxiteles. 

The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on every. 
side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter whence it 
blew. 

The model of Ihis building was furnished by Andronicus Cyrrhas'cs, who placed upon the top of the tower a small pyramiJ ol 
warble, upon the summit of which he erected a brazen triton, holdingin his right hand a switch or wand. The Iriton was so placed 

that he turned round with the wind, and pointed with the wand to the wind which blew. A view of this structure is given in our 

Plate XXI. fig. 2. 

% 111. Xroaij porticos. Were very numerous at Athens; but .the most remarkablt; 
was that called YltiatavaKTioi, and afterwards WoiKiXt], from its containing a variety 
of curious pictures, drawn by those great masters, Polygnotus, Mycon, and Panagnus, 
the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the UoikIM was the statue of Solon. — To the 
north of the AcropoUs, not far from the temple of Theseus, are the rums of 'a struc- 
ture once evidently very splendid, supposed by Stuart to he the ruins of this celebrated 
Stoa or Porch. Some travelers have mistaken them for the remains of the temple of 
Jupiter Olympius already described, which was in the southern part of the city, near 
the fountain Calirrhoe. 

yiovociov was a fort near the citadel, which received its name from the poet Muf^us 



32 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

t lie scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, where he was als<. 
i)uried. — 'SLSsTov was a music theatre, built by Pericles. The inside of this buildin^a 
was filled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and the outside roof or covering was gra- 
dually bent downwards. The roof, which was constructed of the masts and yards of 
the vessels taken from the Persians, and in its iorm resembled ihe tent of Xerxes, 
was supported by columns of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of 
Athens, but afterwards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated on the south-east angle 
of the citadel. 'I'he Odeum of Herodes Atticus has so i.etimes been confounded with 
that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated at the south-west angle of 
the citadel. 'I'his last was built by Herodes in memory of his wife, and was con- 
sidered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its materials, every 
other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of this building was of cedar. 

The Ceramicus (KepaiJtE.tH.ds) received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of 
Bacchus and Ariadne; or more properly «i'd rni KcpapisiKni rixvm, from the potter's 
art, which was invented here by Coraebus. This extensive space was divided into 
two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contained a great number 
of temples, theatres, porticos, &c. ; the other was in the suburbs, was a pubhc bury- 
ing place, and contained the Academy, and several other buildings. — The Lyceum 
and the Cynosarges were also in the suburbs on the north-east. 

Respecting the Academy and other Gynmasia at Athens, see P. IV. §§ 64, 74. 

"5 3 12. 'Ayojoat, forums, were very numerous ; but the most remarkable were the 
old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'Eperpia, vv'hich it is 
probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was situated in the Cera- 
micus within the city, and was called 'Apx"'" dyopa. It was extremely spacious, and 
was decorated with buildings dedicated to the worship of the gods, or to the service 
of the state ; with others which sometimes afforded an asylum to the wretched, but 
which were often a shelter for the wicked ; and with statues decreed to kings and in- 
dividuals, who had merited well of the republic. In it were held the pubhc assem- 
bhes of the people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and 
the forum was divided into different parts, according to tiie wares exposed for sale. 
Thus KvKXog denotes the place where slaves were sold; 'AAcA/T-dn-w/Xif dyopa, the bakers' 
market; IxS^tidn-a>At? dyopuy the fish-monger's market ; TwakKcia dyopa, the market for wo- 
men's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called wXrj^ovo-a dyopa, full 
market, from the great number of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day 
seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the 
inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to main- 
tain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to 
receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superin- 
tend what passed. 

Bov'Sev-rfipia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, and deli- 
berated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encou- 
raged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citizen, with living by the 
profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of slander. 

§ 113. Aqueducls were not common at Athens before the time of the Romans ; al- 
though one is said to have been built by Pisistratus. The want of them was supplied 
by wells ((j^peara), some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the pub- 
lic expense; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels 
a-rose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which 
was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. 

The stadium was an oblong area, semicircular at one end, designed originally for 
the foot-race, but used for other games and exercises ; and for the accommodation of 
spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each 
other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below 
them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium 
(Srd^ioi- Xldva^rfva'CKov), erected near the river Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards en- 
larged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen 
telic marble, with such magnificence that Pausanias did not expect to be credi'ed, 
even in his brief description of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken 
for a mountain of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geo- 
metrical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium, 
a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile. 

•^ 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acro- 
polis. On this, the court or sena'e of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. 
P. III. ^ 108). A space \yas leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and 
tho steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the natural soHd stone. There was 
originally neither enclosure nor roof; but merely an altar to Minerva, and two stone 
seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by 
temporary erection. — The. Pnyx, n^ij^, was another eminence, opposite the Areo- 
pagus, not far from the -citadel, celebrated as the place where the Athenians 
ue.d their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a 



F. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 33 

recent removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The 0fjtta, 
on which the orators stood to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet 
remains. Before this was a semicircular area, of which the part most distant from 
the orator's stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surlace ot the rock, 
facing this area, are niches for votive tablets. North-east from the Acropolis, on the 
street of the tripods (cf. ^ 115), was the Upvrai'elov, where was a pubUc hall, and where 
the laws of Solon were deposited. Near it was the BovXelov or senate-house. 

^ IfS. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One ot the most celebrated 
was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators. (Cf P. ]V. 
§ 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the 
place where the dramatic contests were decided : it was near the Acropolis, at its 
south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in 
the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, si ill appears a cavern 
or grotto, formerly termed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of 
chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Chorugic monument of 
Thrasyllus ; having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained 
in the theatre. Over this building, and higher up the rock, are the two Columns of 
the tripods, or Chorogic pillars. 1 here were several other edifices in Athens, erected 
for the same purpose; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acro- 
polis, commonly called the Lantern of Dimosthenes, but proved by its inscription to 
be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of the 
tripods, so called from the circumstance that in it were erected (on choragic monu- 
ments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been obtained as 
prizes in the musical or theatrical contests. 

Respecting the dmmatic and musical contests above allu!ed to, see P. IV. § 66. — A view cf the Monument jf Thrasyllus is given 
111 Plate XLIX. fig. C ; and of that of I^ysicraies, in the same Plate, fig. A ; the designation Lantern of Demoslhetics is said to have 
been applied by the modern Greeks, under the groundless supposition that it was the study of that illustrious orator. 

^ ] 16. Athens had three harbors for ships : — 1. Ueipauvs, Pirteus, which belonged 
tj the tribe of Hippothoontis. and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city, 
before the building of the naKpa Tcixn or long walls. Alter that time, the Athenians, 
by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained 
thfee opuoi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, which being joined together 
formed a very large one, called on that account ^laKpa aroa. The Pirseus also con- 
tained two forums. Here the productions of all countries were accumulated ; and 
this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hun- 
dred gallies have sometimes been collected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious 
to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by The- 
mistocles when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and maga- 
zines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing neces- 
sary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mowvxin, Munychia, which 
was a promontory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, 
and was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person 
called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed Movvvxi«- 
— 3. ^aXripSv, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from 
the city 35 stadia, or as some say, only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the 
three harbors; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus 
for Troy. 

For further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer 1o the worlvs cited P. IV, § 243. I. ; P. V 
§ 7 (b).— We may add fVaddington's Visit to Greece. — Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4.—Knise, Hellas, ode' 
D.irstellung des alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's pro 
ceedings (cf. P. IV. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern worlds illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general. — ( f . Stuart'$ 
Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture ; cf. also Chateauhiand's Travels, in Introduction. — E. D. Clarke, Travels \u 
various countries, S:c. Part II. sect. 2. — BartheleniyU Anactiarsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description. — IV. M. Leake, Topography 01 
Athens. Lend. 1821. with an Atl. fol. Cf. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kinsdv7n,\o\. iii. p. 183. 
— fVurdsworth, Athens and Attica. — Rienllcher, Topogrnphie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). Halle, 1829; with 
notes of Muller and Me er. — C. 0. Muller, De Munimentis Athenarum, &c. Gott. 1837. 4. with plates. — L. Ber^mann, Die 
AlterhUmer von Athen. nach Stuart und Revett, &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates.— /rirt'j Plan des Athen.— i;77>c/i ^- Gruber, Encjr- 
clopidie, under Attika (written by MUller). — There is a glance at some of the most interesting objects, in IV. Collon, Visit to Con- 
»tantinople and Athens. N. York, IS36. 12 ch. 18, 19. 

^ 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, \he fourth division of Graecia (<5i 76), remains to be 
noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the 
interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract ot country 
which was called Arcadia. From this circle of elevated .summits, various branches 
aie sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running out to each of the principal 
promontories; to JR/iium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinlhiacus ; to Cheloni- 
tes Prom, on the western side of the penin.sula ; to Acrilas Prom, west of the Smua 
Messeniacus ; to Tanamm, to Malea, and to Scyllcrtim, the other {loinis, which occur 
in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were 
fruitful vaileys, watered by numerous streams descending from the m^mntaiii^ ». 
eveiv direction. 



34 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPH\ 

^ 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the con- 
quests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, UeXonoi vfjaoi ; it was also called 
Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance to a mul- 
berry-leaf in shape, or from the nutnber of mulberry trees that it produces. — It may 
l)e considered in six divisions : Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laco- 
nia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes added to these ; bat ihey may be included 
under Achaia. 

^ 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole north 
coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus ol Corinth, by which it is joined to Hellas 
Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent, 
and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united 
in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean league ; they were Dyme. Olenus, Pharae, 
Tri'aea, Pdtrce (now Patras), Rhype, JEgium the place where the deputies of the 
league met, Helice, Bur.i, .3^ge, JEgina, and Pellene. In the resistance to the Ro- 
:nan; made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially 
Corinth took part. 

It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mnmmiiis reduced Greece 
to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole 
country. Cf $ 213. I. 6. 

^ 120. Sici/on was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded 
B. C. 2089. — But CorirJh has obtained greater notoriety: it was on the isthmus, at 
nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once called 
Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports; Lecnce- 
um, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and CeitchrecB, on the Sinus Saronicus. Althougii 
destroyed by Muromius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius 
Caesar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and licentiousness. 

The isthmus of Corinth was an import:irit pass. Several attempts have been made, at differ- 
ent periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure of them all, " to cut ihroui^h 
the Corinthian isthmus" has become a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here 
the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated : and here a stand haa 
frequently been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting 
of regular fortification. 

^121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of rne Peloponnesus. Its 
chief town was Argos, on the river Inachns, more celebrated in the heroic than the 
historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his grandfather Acri- 
sius, he transferred the seat of government to Mycenm ; this latter city retained its 
power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives, 
through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. — ■ 
North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the 
Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and TirT/nthus, a tavorite residence of 
Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Sinus Argo- 
licus (Gulf di Napoli) were, Navplia (NapoH di Romania), in ancient and modern 
times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated 
temple of i5^sculapius (P. II. § 84) ; and Trcezene, whither the aged inhabitants of 
Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. 

^ 122. Elis was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea. 

Its chief tov/n was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have pro- 
voked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it 
was on the Peneus (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pisa, de- 
stroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheus (Rouphia or Rufeas), a larger rivei 
flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olympia, the place near which the Olym- 
pic games were celebrated. 

Olympia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- 
formed. Here was the grove ^Itis, with splendid monuments scattered in it ; the temple of 
Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf. P. II. $24); the Cronium or Hill of Saturn; 
also a famous hippodrome and stadium. 

Barthdemy. ch. xxxviii. as cited P. V. § 153. 2.—Choiseul-Gauffier, Sur I'Hippodrome d'Olympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vol. 
xllx. p. 122. — Dusen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 630, where is a plan with explanations. — Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece, vol. v. p. 401. 
—J. S. Stanhope, Olympia, &c. as cited P. IV. § 243. I. 

^123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus; and being entirely de- 
voted to agriculture was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns were Tegcua, the 
capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus. where Hercules destroyed the Harpies, 
on the river Ladon, which flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern 
part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell, near the ruins of which is 
Tripolitza, the metropolis of the Morea; Megalopolis, near the Helissus. a tributary to 
'he Alpheus, built by Epaminondas to repress the incursions of the Lacedasmonians. — 
From the ruins of Phigalia (Pdulitza), in the territory of the Parrhasii, were taken the 
bas-reliefs called the Phigallan Marbles (cf P. IV. <S 179, '^^ 183. 4). 

The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets; the principal were 
'^■vUene, the l)irthplace of Mercury ; Erymanlhus, where Hercules slew an enormous 



IV ft. 




siiiiiiiiijii™ 



35 



36 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

boar; Mcenalus, sacred to the Muses; Parthenius, where Atalanta resided; Parrh:t' 
sius and Lycceus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From the hill Konacris flowed the ceU- 
brated river Styx ; its waters were said to be poisonous. 

^ 124, The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messcnia, of which 
Messene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citadel was called lihome, and 
was supposed to be impregnable ; these were in the interior, west from the Famisi.j, 
which is the principal river of the province, and flows from the mountains between 
IVIessenia and Arcadia into the Sinus 3Iesseniacus. — The other principal towns were 
Pi/los, the city of Nestor, now called Navari?c ; Methone, where Philip defeated the 
AtheJiians; and CEchalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. 

The Messeiiians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lacedaemonians, f)nd '.he 
greater part compelled to leave the country. Subsequently their city lay long in ruins: but 
when Epantinondas had destroyed the supremacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the 
exiles and rebuilt Messene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the country, 
but did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. 

^ 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus was 
Ijaconia. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the following sections. 

The other towns of note were, Amyclce, on the Eurotas, the residence of Leda; 
Therapne, on the same river, the birthplace of Castor and Pollux ; Gythetim, the prin- 
cipal port of Laconia ; Helos, whose inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans • and 
Sellusia, where the Achaeans, by the defeat of Cleomenes, liberated the Peloponne- 
sus from the power o.^ Lacedaemon. 

The Si?ms Laconicus (Gulf of Colochina) was bounded by the capes Malea (St 
Angelo) and Tasnarum (Matapan). Near Taenarum was a cave represented by -the 
poets as the entrance into the infernal regions ; through this Hercules is said to have 
dragged up Cerberus. 

The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops ; but about eighty years after the 
Trojan war, the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and 
became masters of the diiferent kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in 
Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. 

^ 126. Topography of Sparta. The city of Lacedaemon, which was anciently called 
Sparta, is said to iiave been built by king Lacedaemon, who gave it the latter denomi- 
nation from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and tne inhabitants 
from his own name ; but some think that this city received the appellation of Sparta 
from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus into Laconia. It was situated at the foot 
of mount Taygetus, on the west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic 
gulf. It was of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, 
and was surrounded to a great extent with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, 
and summer-houses. 

Anciently the city vvas not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was the 
valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the space of eight 
hundred years, this city was without any for tificai ions ; but after it fell into the hands 
of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were rendered very strong. It had, 
however, some eminences upon which soldiers might be posted in case-of an attack. 
The highest of these eminences served as a citadel ; its summh was a spacious plain, 
on which were erected several sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five 
towns, which were separated from each other by intervals of different extent, and 
each of which was occupied byoneofthe tribes of Sparta. 

^ 127. The great square or forum, 'Ayopa, in which several streets terminated, was 
embeUished with temples and statues. It also contained the edifices in which the 
senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assembled. Of these public edi- 
fices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians, which the Lacedaemonians 
erected after the battle of Plataea, at tlie expense of the vanquished, whose spoils 
they shared. The roof of this building was supported by colossal statues of the prin- 
cipa officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and 
who were habited in flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the forum, 
in which assemblies of the people were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of 
the forum, where dances were performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopaedian 
q^ames. 

Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had the privi- 
lege of a=!ylam, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house appei- 
mining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hunger. The temple 
was built with brass (XaAKtot»(-oj). Within the building were engraven, in bas-rehef, 
the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the right of this edifice was 
a statue o^ Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue of brass in existence; of 
the same date with the re-establishment of the Olympic games. 

The most ornamented plaoe in Sparta, however, was the Poecile, which, instead of 
heing confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a very considerable 
extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paintings in fresco which had 
*een employed to decorate the walk. — Farther advanced in the city appeared diflfer- 



38 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ent. ranges of Porticos, intended only for the display of different kinds of merchan 
dize. 

^ 128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned at 
the Olympic games; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their country. 
Statues might be decreed to wrestlers ; but the esteem of the people was the only 
reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of Thermopylae, that 
the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near th'j 
theatre ; and at the same time also the names of the three hundred Spartans who had 
fallen with him were first inscribed on a column. — The theatre was in the vicinity of 
the forum, and was constructed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb 
of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were 
annually given near these monuments. 

Of the edifices and monuments of Sparta it may !ie remarked in general, tliat they were no( 
distinguished for architectural beauty ; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its ap 
pe;i ranee. 

^ 129. On the south side of the city was the 'IfrToSpoiiog, or course for foot and horse 
races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance from it was the 
Platanifitas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beautiful plane-trees, and en- 
closed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small river which fell into it on the other, and 
by a canal which opened a communication with both on the third. The Plaianistas 
was entered by two bridges, on one of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-sub- 
diiing force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. 

The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gytheium, Tvdeiov^ situated 
^'est from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 stadia, according to 
Strabo, and 30 [300?] according to Polybius. It was early surrounded by strong 
walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and. 
where they found every requisite for their maintenance and security. 

The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Palmochori or old town, about two miles distant 
from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoula. "The whole site," says Chatemi- 
briand, "is uncultivated; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird, 
not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled without 
noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half-wild horses were feeding 
here and thereupon the withered grass; a shepherd was cultivating a few water-melons in a 
torner of the theatre ; and at Magouia, which gives its dismal name to LacedsRmon, I observed 
a small grove of cypresses." 

On ttie topography and ruins of Sparta, see Chateaubriand's Trave's (p. 94, ed. N. V. 1814). — Le Rot, Monuniens de la Grece. — 
Sir IV. Gell, Itinerary of the Morea. — Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8. — Cramer, Dodwell, &c. as cited P. V. 
k 7. (b). 

IV. ISLANDS BELONGING TO EUROPE. 

§ 130. It was mentioned (§ 8), that having considered the mainland of Europe under 
three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands together 
under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the Atlantic or 
Mediterranean ; of those in the Baltic they knew but httle. We will speak first of 
those in the Atlantic. 

^ 131. Of these, Britannia was the most important. It was scarcely known to 
exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by successive migrations from 
Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when invaded, and thus pro- 
voked the vengeance of Rome. The south-western shores are said to have been 
visited by the Phoenicians at a much earher period ; and that enterprising people have 
leen described as carrying on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly 
sles, which, from their abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides InsultB 
<»r Tifi islands. 

$ 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter rather of curiosity 
»han utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remarkable. — The Cantii occupied the south 
of the island ; in their territory were Rutujiio! (Richbornugh), celebrated for its oysters by Juve- 
nal ; and Porfus Lemanis (Lymne), where CsRsar landed, B. C. 55. — The Trinobantes possessed the 
country north of the Cantii ; their chief town was Londinum (London), the most flourishing Ro- 
man colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South Walf^s, and appear to have been a very 
flourishing and warlike tribe. Caractaciis. one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely 
defended the liberties of his country ; and for a long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Ro • 
mans: he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome — 
^n the eastern coast were the fceni, who.tse queen Boadicea, having been cruelly abused by the 
^oman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she ob- 
tained several victories over her oppressors, but was finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinua. 
A. D 61.— The north of England was possessed by the Brio-ante.'!, the most powerful and ancient 
of the British nations; their principal towns were Eboracum (York), and Isuriuni (supposed tf 
%e Mdborough), the capital of their tribe. 

% 133. Scotland was still 'less known than England; five nations on the bord<jr* 
known by the general name of Meattp., were subdued by Agricola, and became nomi 
Daily subject to the dominion of Rome. 

Wlien Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five following 



PLATE V. 




1. The Rotunda of Salnnica t''e ancient Thessalonica. It is supfiosed to 
have been a Cabirinn Temple. By the Christians it was converleil into a 
chnrch cf Paul and Peter. The Turks have turned it into a mosque: ard ^ 
erected the minaret, which appear.^ attached to it, and in the gallery of 
which is seen a Muezzin, whose oflice is to announce from the gallery the 
hour of prayer. 

2. A fountain for the Mussulman ablution before prayera. 



39 



40 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

province? : Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern division of tJie 
country ; Flavia CoPf^arievsis, containing the western tribes ; Britannia aecurida, 
which inckided all Wales ; Maxima CcBsariensis. which contained the country 
between the former divisions and the river Tweed; and Valenlia, occupied by the 
iVIeata3. 

$ 134. To rfijie! the incursions of tiie Picls and Scots, who frequently laid waste the Roman 
•ettlenients. several walls were built across the isiand. The first was f^rected liy the celebrutet 
Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. Hut this beinjr found insiifficieni to restrain 
the inci:rsi(>ns of the barbarians, the ernperor Adrian erected a rainpnrt of ^reat strengih an(i 
dimensions. — The wall of Adrian extended from JEstvarium ItuvcB (Snlway Frith), on the western 
roast, to Seifediivum (Consin's House), a village north of Pov.s ^lU (Newcastle-upon-Tyne), on 
the easterti coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart atid ditch, -iiid was 
strengthened by forts erected at short intervals. — Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoni- 
nus rebuilt the wall of Asricola, which was nfearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neg- 
lected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. 

$ ]35. But the last and trreatest of these structures was the wall erected by the emperor Seve- 
'us, A. I). 200. — It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the 
strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eiabi feet iiigh, binll 
of stone and cement ; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-ou'^ castles, 
and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison this 
itnmense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred itiariners, appointed 
to guard the points where the ramparts conununicated with the shore. 

^ 136. "^I'he islands adjoining Brilain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides (Western 
Isles), Muna Taciti (Anglesea) , Moiia CcBsaris (Man), V(ctis (Isle of Wiglit), and Cas- 
siterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was 
called lerne Juverna, or Hibernia. 

The Irish say that they »re descended from a Scythiau nation, and that at an early period, part of the country was colonized hy th» 
Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been ureed that the specimens of the Funic langu tge preserved by plautus, are ilniost pur<s 
Irish ; and that antique swords, found in the bos;s of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of materials jirecisely siuiilai 
to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sii W. Hamilton in the field of Cannae. — Of. P. V. ^ 352. 2. 

An island called Th ule is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most 
distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we cannot be 
certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and 
Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf ^ 3). 

§ 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediierranean, we begin in the weslern part. 
The Balearicce, deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants in slinging and 
archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balearis inajor (Majorca); 
Balearis miliar (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica). 

Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Prelum Fossce 
(Strau of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was of uttle note in 
ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It con- 
tained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North 
of Mariana was Malinorum Oppidum (Bastia), the present capital of the island. — 
Sardinia derived its name from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Her- 
cules, who al a very early period led a colony hither; it was called by the Greeks 
Ichnusa, from its resemblance to the human fool. Neither serpents nor wolves were 
found in this island, and (as we are told) only one poisonous herb, which caused those 
who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic grin. 
The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the 
Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war. 

There were several small inlands of no great importance on the coast of Italy; the 
chief were Ilua (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary 
banishment ; Frochyta ; and Caprece (Capri), infamous as the scene of the unnatural 
debaucheries of '1 iberius. 

'^ 138. Si cilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, hes to the 
south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Sicnlum (Strait of Messina). — 
It was called Triquetra. or Trinacria, from its triangular shape, terminating in three 
promontories; Pelon/s (Faro), on the north; Pachynus {Fassaro), on the south; and 
Lilybcpum (Boco). on the west. 

Syracusoi (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most remarka- 
ble cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Cor nihian colony led by Archias. and 
arrived at sitfh a piich of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles.— 
It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be esteemed separate towns; 
viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks (originally settled; Acradina facing 
ihe sea; Tycha, between that and the following division; Neapolis, which stood on 
the great port; and Epipolo?. — Syracuse had two porls. the lesser ibrnied by the island 
■ Ortygia, and ihe greater at the mouth of the river Anapns. which here flows into a 
large bay, having the i,«land'at its northern, and the fort o\ Plt'mmyrium at its southern 
extremity. The celebrai'e.d prison called LatomicB was cut out of the rock by the tyrant 
Dionysius ; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit 
all K'lunds from below to a small apartment where the tyrant used to conceal hirnself 



p. I, EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 41 

in order to overhear the conversation of his victims ; it is now a very handsome sub 
terraneous garden. 

This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expedition, any 
tiie forniiilable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town was besieged by Marcellus 
This siege was protracted principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archimedes. 

^ 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Mcssana ; Leontiiua; 
Agrigtntum, where ihe tyrant Phalaris resided ; Lilyhceam, Drtpcmum. Panormos (Pa- 
lermo), Himera ; Nuulochus, where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept; 
Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis estabhshed the head quaners ol a republic; of 
slaves, and held out against the Roman power foj several years; Seli?ius, known for 
its vigorous but unavailing resistance to the Carthaginians. 

Interesting Greek ruins have been found at Selinus, Agrigentum, &c. — On these ruins, see R Hoare, Classical Tour, vo!. ii. p. 78 w 
Cf. P. IV. § !7S. 3.—F. Gartner, Archiiect. Monnm of Sicily, as cited P. IV. § 243. I.— See alsu Ihe citations, P. IV. ^ 234. 3. 

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simoithus (Giaretta), celebrated for the pioduc 
tion of amber; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and Demosthenes wer€ 
taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the eastern coast ; on the south 
side were Camicics and Crimisus, with some smaller streams; and on the north, the 
river Himera. — Mount ^t?ia, so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of 
Sicily ; the poets feigned that the giants, when defeated by Jupiier, were buried under 
this heap, and that the eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. 

The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Lfpstrigons, a barbarf>Hs race of people, 
almost extirpated by the different tireek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's 
eiluation intluced to settle in this island. 

^ 140. Near the western angle or corner of Sicily are three small islands called 
Agates, opposite one of which, ^gusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians 
in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of 
Sicily were the InsulcB ^oUcb (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Lipara, 
which was once a place of great consequence; the next in size is Stro7/gyle (Stromboli), 
where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated 
volcano. — South-east of Sicily is Melite (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its 
cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem 
to Rome. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient 
station for commerce on account of its excellent harbor. — Near Malta is the small island 
of Gaulos (Gozo). 

•^141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corcyra 
'.Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesproiia, from which it was 
separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or 
Phmacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — 
The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous 
and Cassiope. Near the promontory of Fhalacrum was a remarkable rock, said 'o 
have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his nativo 
country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phceacians 
for aiding Ulysses. 

Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through 
by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Lcucna, in earlier 
ages called Nericicm, and the neighboring country Neritis ; it was founded by a Co- 
rinthian colony, and was joined to the continent by a bridge, as the strait was here very 
narrow — At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named 
Leucafe, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Lcucoptlra, from which unfortu- 
nate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple 
of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. 

The Echinadea (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river 
Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dalichiiim. part of the empire of Ulysses. 
— Near Dulichium was Ilhaca (Thaki), the birthplace of Ulysses; the capital was also 
called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Nerilus. 

$ 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — Its chief 
town vvas Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that ni^me ; there 
were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; from which circumstance 
it is called 7.\t7npoli.^. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure. _ 

South of this vvas Zncynlhiis (Zante), with a capital of tlie same name, celebrated foj 
ite fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance 
of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues from thf 
oily matter that floated on its surface. 

West of the Peloponnesus were the S/rophndes (Strivoli), at first calle I PIoIcb, tne 
residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphaclerin (Splidgiae), takei; 
by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponne.su* 
was Cylhera, or Porphyrce (Ceriso), sacred to Venus. It contained two exc( Uent towna 
and harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with ^^reat c»rp . 
but the Athei;ians destroyed both in the first Peloponue.«!an war 



42 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 143. W 3 may include among the ^gean Islaitds all that remain to te noticed. 

The 1 hracian islands occupy the northern part of the .-Egean, and were named 
Thusiis, Sanioihrace, and Inibrus. — Thasus ('J'a&se), opposite the mouth of the Nessus, 
was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named ^thria. It produced wine and mar- 
ble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the 
Ben with the Athenians, but alter a severe contest of two years they were compelled 
to surrender at discretion. — Samolhrace (Samandrachi) derived its name irom Samos, 
by a colony from which it was first peopled. P'rom this place Dardanus brought the 
worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies lo the south of Samothrace. 

^ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It 
contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, be- 
cause he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Sminthae in the Phry- 
gian language. 

South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown 
out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, 
HephiEstia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Thessalian coast, was 
Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of 
the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sci- 
atia) ; Scopelos (Scopela) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where i^chilles was concealed by his 
mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. 

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of 
the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcoeus, and the poetess Sappho; its 
chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylene, from whence the island 
has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. 
The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great 
public sympathy. 

§ 14.5. The largest island of the ^gean was Eubcsa (Negropont), opposite the coast 
of Boeotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait called the Euripus. Into 
this strait Aristotle (P. V. "^ 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in 
a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. 
The chief towns were Clialcls, joined to Aulis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euri-" 
pus; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war; Oreus, on the 
Euripus ; the town and promontory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, 
where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystics, in 
the south, between the promontories Geraestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the 
quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of EuLcea is not 
very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. 

In the Saronic gulf were ^gina (Engia), anciently ^none, strongly fortified by 
nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea; here were discovered the monu- 
ments called the ^ginetan sculptures or marbles (cf. P. IV. ^ 190. 3). The iEgine- 
tans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and 
obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salainis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, 
father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia- 
des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy 
of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was CaJauria (Foro), w^here Demos- 
thenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the suc- 
cessor of Alexander the Great. 

% 146. South-east of Euboea was the large cluster of islands called the Cyclades, 
from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called 
Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana; on which, 
near Mount Cynfhus, stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which* pil- 
grimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Paralus 
Jfi rrapaXos), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and dur- 
ing its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. T'r.e other 
remarkable islands in this group were Myconns, Gyarus, and Seriphuf!, small islands 
whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals ; Andros and Tenos, south-east 
of EubcRa; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cylhus, Siphnus, and 
?Telos (Milo), south of Ceos ; Faros, celebrated for its white marble, the birthplace of 
the statuaries Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was 
imgratefully deserted by Theseus; los, where Homer was said to have been buried; 
Thera, and Anapke. 

^ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the ^Egean were called the Sporades, and 
more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed 
by the Greeks. I'he chief of these were Samos, sacred to Juno, the birthplace of Py- 
ihagoras ; Icdria, which gave name to the Icarian sea ; Patmos (Palmossa), where the 
Apostle John wrote the Revelations; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Car- 
•jvithus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Ehodus (Rhodes).— 
I'his latter island containecl three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus. 

\t the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. 11 
J 7*. It held in one hand a light*'ou9e. This splendid statue (cl.P.IV.J 180. 1) was thrown 



wu 




liPiwi 



Frnnrmi 

or 



ifnrnmiTniiii)( 



31P 

mimm 



TTTnni 



ii 



(TMI 



rm%1lfmiil!ll{IOnifrll iHi 



MlilM 



p. I, ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. INDIA. PERSIA. 43 

down by an earthquake about B. C. 225, and having long lain prostrate was broken upbj Iha 
Saracens when tiiey became masters of the island, in tlie seventh century. 

^ 148. Greta {Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the ^Egean. was the most cele- 
brated island of ancient times: it is said to have contained a hundred cities, the princi- 
pal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the iionh side o. the island : Gortynia. 
on the opposite side, where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus;, and 
Cydofita, by some esteemed the capital. 

The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idasi Dactyli. who lived near Mount Ida, and exercised 
mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Ciiretes, wliu directed iheir attention 
to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was ihe legislator of Cretn, and from his laws 
the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally burrowed. The fabulous legends 
resppciniff this monarch, his wife Pasiphae,and his daughter Ariadne, are mentioned in ani'ther 
place (cf.P. II. $ 117. (a), and $ 125). 

Tlie Cretao Lityrintti is generally represented to have been near Gnossus ; but some suppose if to have been found in the remark- 
able excavations or caverns near Goriynia, consisting of several chsnibet^ atid galleries. It is not improbable thai some such cavern 
near Gnossus gave rise n ihe storj' of aii artificial labyrinth. — See H^ckh't Cret?. — Cochet-ell, on the Cretan Labyrinth, in Walpole'* 
Memoirs. — Smith, Diet, of Antiquit. art. Labynnthut. 



IT. OF ASIA. 

^ 149. Asia, the la.gest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is cele- 
brated as the birthplace i^+" the human race ; the quarter where the true God was wor- 
shiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism ; the scene of 
our Savior's life and suffering""; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive sway (cf. § 211) before the commence- 
ment of authentic European history. — Frorn Asia the first principles of the arts and 
sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation had attained a high degree 
of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. 

§ 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the 
Eastern, and Western ; the boundary between them being the river Rha or Wolga, 
the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. 

The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinaru.ai Regio, India, Persia, Media, 
and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Faropamisus. — The 
Western includes Sarmatia, with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pon- 
tus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, with the 
cotintries in the valley of the Tigris. 



I. THE COUNTRIES OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 

% 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of 
Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scythia intra linaum, 
and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, 
v/hich unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — Scy- 
thia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in I'artary), and the Regio Se- 
rica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare 
of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia. 

There has l)een much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Strica,. — Cf. WAnvillt, and GoiseHn, sur la SeriqM 
■ des Ancieos, in the Mem. Acad, liuar. vol. xxxii. p. 573, and xlix. p. 713. — Clasi. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. 32. — Anlfion'i 
L«mpriere, article Seres, 

The SiN,i: occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients; sup- 
posed to be the coutitry now named Cochin China. Their capital was ThyncB, on the 
Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. 

% 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in their 
northern part Parueti. on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or Menan, 
which empties into Magnus Sinus {G\i\{ of Siam). It was divided by tne ancients 
nto India i?itru Gangem. and htdin extra Gangem : the boundary betweerf thein be- 
ing the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangrticus (Bay of Bengal). This 
country was but little known before the expedition of Alexander. The southern part 
of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Com<.i- 
rin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the \\v^,r I'haheris (Cavery), 
was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Anrea 
Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called xdagnum Pro' 
monforium (now cape Romania). 

^ 153. Persia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river 
Tigris, between Media on the north and the Persian ^ulf on the south. But t'lie nam* 



44 CLASSICAL GrLOGRAPHY. 

IS sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the 
Faropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zugros chain and the river Tigris on the 
west, to the Parueti and Arhiti Muntes separating it from India on the cast. Thus it 
includes several provinces. 

Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and 
Susa; the latter, called in the Bible Shushu?i, was the winter residence of the Per- 
sian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes 
mountains into the Tigris. — Fersis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the 
Si?ms Fersicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capi- 
tal was Fersepolis, represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set 
on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his 
mistress Thais. 

The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain six niilea 
wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E which is now crowded with numerous villages.— Through 
this flowed the Praxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir disc harming into Lake Baktegian. The 
principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehid-Minar, CIdL-Minar, or Skehel-Mivar, or 
palace of furiy r.olumvs. 

See a description, with plates, in Roh. Ker Porter's Travels. — G. Keppel, Journey from Indii to England, by Persia, &c- in 1824. 
LonJ. 1827. 4. — J. E. Mexander, Tra.ve\s from India to England, through Persia, Asia Minor, &c. in 1826. Lend. 1S?27. 4. — C£ 
Heidur, The Univ History, kc. ciled ^211. VI. 

Previously to the founding of Persei»olis, the royal residence was at Pasargada, which was in 
CoBle-Persis, on the river Cyrus, flowing southerly into a small lake ; here king Cyrus is said to 
have erected a tomb for hiujself, in a high narrow lower. 

A monument still exists, which has been supposed to be the tomb of Cyrus : it is represented in our Plate XVIII. fig. 1. — Cf. 
P. III. § 187. 4. 

The other provinces were C a r m a n i a (Kerman), south-east of Persis, also border- 
hig on the Smus Persicus ; G e d r o s i a (now.Mekran), lying on the Erythroeum More 
and extending from Carinania to India ; A r a c h o s i a and D r a n g i a n a, which in- 
clude the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the 
south and the Faropamisus on the north. — This latter territory was watered by the 
Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east, and south, 
flowed into the Aria Faltis, a lake or sea on its western limiis ; the whole territory was 
often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of 
the Paropamisus. 

§ 154 a. Media was situated south of the ])lare Caspium; its northern limit was the rivei 
Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia; on the south were Susiana and Persis. Its 
piincipal river was the Mardus or Amardus, rising in the south-western part, where the 
Orontes chain of mountains is connected with the Zogros chain, and flowing by a cir- 
cuitous course into the Caspium Mare in the country of the Mardii. Media was sepa- 
rated from Armenia on the west by Moiis hnbarus, a chain extending from Mt. Ararat 
on the north to the Zagros on the south The capital was Ecbataiia (now Ramadan), 
in the region south of the mountains termed Orontes. 

Ecbatana was made the summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and afterwards of the 
Parthian Two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character, are still shown to travelers 
as being those of Mordecai and Esther. — Raffce, or Rages, mentioned in the apocryphal book 
of Tobii, was a place of some importance, north-east from Ecbatana. 

See Rtnnell, Geog. of Herod, sect. v. II, as cited P. V. § 241. 5. — Hock, Vet. Med. et Pers, Monumenta, cited P. IV. § 171. — Mai 
coZm, as cited §211. VI. 

% 154?). The northern portion of Media, lying on the river Araxes, was formed, after 
the death of Alexander, into an independent kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and 
thence called Atropatene; having as its capital Gaza (now '^I'ebriz or Tabreez), 
and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropatin on a stream flowing into the 
Mardus. In the western part of this i)rovince was the Lacus Spauta or Marcianus 
(lake of Orootniah), near which on its western side was Thebarma (Oroomiah), said 
to be the native place of Zoroaster or Zcrdusht. 

This region, now a part of AderMjan, and belonging to Persia, has become intensely interesting, on account of the American mij 
sion p'talilished anion? the Nestorian Christians, who reside in the plains of Oroomiah and in the mountains on the west, and whosf 
existence was first uiije kuown to the western woild.about thfe year 1826. — See Snath and Dwight, Researches, &c. as cited P. IV 
5 36. \.—Miss. Herald, vol. xxi. p. U. xxxiv. p 289.— .4. Grant, The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes. N. Vork, 1841. 12.—/. Pfr 
kini, AccouLt of a Residence iu Persia, &c. Bost. 1843. 8. with colored plates. (See Plate VI a.) 

^ 155. Under Partiiia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner of the 
Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the river Oxus (Gihon). which flows to 
the north into the sea of Aral, although it was once supposed to flovv into the Caspian, 
and is so delineated on some maps. It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a pro- 
vince belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, after the time of Alexander, it wag 
inade the seat of a new state, which under his successors, called Arsacidcp,, grew into 
a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resistance to the Romans (^211. viii.,. 
Ore of its principal places.was Niscea (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ochui, 
'Margab), which empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place 
»n the small river Socanda. — But the royal residence of the x\rsacidcp was Hecatcmpylos, 



PI.ATE VI a. 




This MAh gives I he 
lodern names of vil- 
lasfes, &c. ill llie I'a ley of 
tl.e ancient THERARMA. Q7 

The Mis. on the West, a pail of 

the Zaifros ciniii.are occupieil 
by Koords or Curds, the ancieni 
Carditchi (,c( § 170). Suppost^ 
nionninenis of ihe ancient fire- 
worship exist in Ihe valley ; cf. 
J. Pcrhiru, p. 8, as cited § 1 5-1 4. 



45 



46 CLASSICAL G20GRAPHY. 

in the south- western part ; although the later Parthian monarchs sometimes resided ai 
Ctesipkon on the 'I'igris. 

■^rhe remaining countries, between Parthia and Scylhia, were Aria, Baciriana, and 
Soji^diana.— A r i a was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, al- 
though the name was often extended, so as to include C^ 153) a large region south of 
that chain of mountains. The principal place was Artacoana (now Herat). — B a ctri 
ana was east of Ana and south of the river Oxus ; its capital was Zariaspa or Bactro 
(Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — S o gd ia n a includes the territory between the 
Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir; corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. 
Its chief place was Maracanda {Samarcand) , on the Polyiimelus, a branch of the Oxus. 
CyropoUs was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied lhi« 
region ; in the north-eastern part were the SaccB. 

II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 

§ 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first S a r m at i a, called Asiatica 
to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was sepa- 
rated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited 
by roving and uncivilized tribes; particularly the Ala?ii, and the Cimmerii: from the 
latter, the strait connecting the Pains Moeotis with the Euxine received its name of 
Bosphorus Cimm.ericus.—Hu\Hh of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the 
west, and the Mare Caspium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Col- 
•'.his, Iberia, and Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places 'jvuh 
■Ea, on the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — 'A I b a n i a was on the Caspian, extending south 
IS far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An imporiantplace was one of the two celebrated 
passes of the Caucasus, called Pylce Albntiics or CaurasitB, between a northern spur of 
the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the strong city 
of Derbend. — Iberia was between Colchis and Albania, a high valley, watered by 
the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus 
led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine; it was the defile through 
which the river Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus; it is now called DarieZ. — • 
These passes, and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed 
Pylce Caspice ; but the pass properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern pass 
ot Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. 

On ttiess passes, cf. Walcken^r, de Fortes Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c. in tlie Mem. de Phistitut, Classe d'Hist, 
rt Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 210, with a map. — £ibl. Repository, No. xxii. p. 370. 

^ 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount 
Mas'ms and the Carduchi Monies on the south, and from Media on the east to the 
northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents 
three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, that on the north-east, 
watered by the Araxes^ also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, 
the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summat 
called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in 
its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Pains ; 
third, the south-western, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphates Mantes, 
and watered by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an 
easterly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the an- 
cient capital : Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Eu- 
phrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by Lucullua 
in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. 

The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been ascended, for tht 
first lime, by Prof. Parrot, in 1829. See Bill. Repos. No. xxii. p. 390. 

^ 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the 
middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countriea 
bordering on the Propontis and ^gean, and divided it irito Asia intra Taurum and 
Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Mi- 
nor, included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different 
periods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, beginning at the iEgean sea, were 
rhrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. — The middle provinces 
were Lydia, Pnrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia 
Minor. —The southtrn provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and PamphyUa. 

See Reunell, Geography of Western Asia. Lond.. 1831. 2 vols. 8. 

f 159, PLrygia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the en- 
trance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern 
travelers are not agreed about ihe situation of the city of Troy, called also fliiim. 

!!ium was hiiilt at some distance from the sea, above the junction of the Scamander, or Xan- 
»hus, and Simois, two small streams, risinjr from mount fda. and falliti? into the Hellespont; th« 
ritadel was ral'«sd Pergamus, and was erected on a little hill included within the walls. Th** 



P.I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 47 

plain between the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scaniander and Simois, and 
there the battles mentioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was 
the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was hounded by the Hellea- 
pont, which here forms an extensive bay, betwet^n the promontory of RlnBteum on the north, ana 
Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the 
ramp. Ajax was buried on the Rhselean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. 
See P. 11. § 132, and P. V. § M.—Rmnell, and others, oa the Topography of Troy, as cited F. V. § 30. 7. 

Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to Biihynia. 
The principal towns of the former were, Abydos (§ 73); and Lampsacus, dedicated to 
Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury^ — The principal city in Mysia Major 
was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in the Froponf.is, ai^.d joined by 
two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when be- 
aisged by Mithridates ; near this is the river Granicus, where 4^1exander'defeated 
the army of Darius, and where LucuUus obtained an equally important victory over 
Mithridates. 

'S 160. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bosphorus 
and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were, Apamea, at the mouth of the river 
Rhyndacus; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Kadi Keui, or Cadi's 
village), called the City of the Blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible 
site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Chrysopolis (Scutari, directly 
opposite to Constantinople), v.'here the Athenians stationed a fleet imposing tribute on 
all vessels from the iiiuxiae ; Libyssa, where Hanniba' was buried ; Calpas and Hera- 
dea, on the Euxine ; Nicu:a (Nice), where the first general council was assembled ; 
and Prusa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found 
refuge with king Prusias. 

Prusa attained great importance under the name oi Bursa, when Olhman, founder of the Ottoman empire, made it his capital. It 
continued to be the chief residence of the Sultans until the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It still retains, in the modern Broosa, 
an important rank among the cities of Asiatic Turkey (See Plate, VI J.) 

Paphlagonia, lay between the rivers Farthenias and Halys. The chief towns 
were Sinope (Sinube), the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of the kingdom o^ 
Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite 
the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. 

P on tus, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halya 
to Colchis. The principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys ; Eupatoria, on the 
confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopolis ; Amasia, the birth- 
place of the geographer Strabo; Themiscyra, on the river Tkermodon, where the 
Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence Lucullus brought the first 
cherry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of 
Colchis, greatly celebrated by the romance-writers of the middle ages. Near the river 
Halys the Leleges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron-works, resided. 

The Christian scholar will feel a peculiar interest respecting Pontus and Bithynia, from the circumstance that here occurred those 
bitter persecutions of the early converts to Christianity which are noticed in the letters of Pliny the younger, governor of these pio- 
vinces under the Emperor Trajan. See P. V. § 441. 1. 

^ 161. Lydia, called also Maeonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and Mysia, and 
to the east of the ^gean sea. The northern part of the coast was called iEolia, and the 
southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — ^Eolia w'as 
colonized by the .^olians, soon after the termination of the Trojan war ; its chief 
towns were Adramyttium, founded by an Athenian colony; Pergamus (Bergamo), the 
capital cf a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithri 
dates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus its last king; its port was called Elea; be- 
tween Elea and Adramyttium was Lyrnesstis ; south-west from Pergamus, Thyu' 
tira : and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the same name, near which are the 
jEginusan islands, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely defeated the 
Spartans.— Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the principal were 
Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born; a cave 
here used to be shown to travelers as his birthplace, and another as the spot where 
he wrote his poems (cf. P. V. ^ 50) ; north and east of Smyrna was Mt. Sipylus, the 
residence of Niobe (cf. P. II. ^ 131); ClazomeiKS, on a peninsula of the same name, 
celebrated for its wealth ; ErythrcB. near mount Mimas, the residence of one of th« 
Sybils ; Corycus, near which the fleet of Aniiochus was defeated by the Romans ; 
Teos, the birthplace of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula of Clazomenae, were Colo 
phon, on the river Ilalesus, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo, 
Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degene- 
rated into a paltry village, remarkable for the splendid temple ui' Diana; ]\fyrale, 
opposite Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks; Priene, 
on the Blceander, a river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birthplace o*" 
Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount 
Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, a branch of the Tlermus. Not far east from Sardis 
was Thymbra. celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Croesus. On 



48 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, \yas overthrown by th« 
Romans. 

WiHiin the limits which we have above given to LycJia, were sjx uf the seven churc'ics addressed m the Apocalypse; viz. in the 
ordef in which the apostle John introduces Iheni — Ephesus, Sniyrnn, Perijanius, Thyatira, Sirdis, and Philadelphia : the other, Ijio 
dicea, was in Phry^ia Mijor — See Milner, History of the Seven Churches. Loud. 1832. %.—ArundeU, Visit to the Seven Churche* 
of Asia. Lond. lh2S. 8.— On the ruins of Sardis, cf. Miss. Herald, for 1839, p. 2. 8. 

^ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, extending from the river Lycus on the 
south to the Sangar'ms on the north. Its chief town.s were Ptssinas, near the foot 
of ^noant Bindtimua. sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose image was 
conveyed thence to Rome at the end of the second Punic war (P. II. § 21) ; Gordium, 
celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander; Apamea, on the river 
M'irsj/as, where Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas; Lnodicea, cele- 
brated in sacred history, on the river Lycus; and Colos^ce. Galatia, or Gallo- 

Grsecia, lay north of Phrygia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns 
were Ancyra (Angoura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamer- 
lane ; Gangra, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, 

the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. 

The principal towns of the former were IsaurcB, the capital ; Lystra and Derhe, men- 
tioned hi the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town of the latter was 
Iconium. Both of these provinces were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. 

% 163. C a p p ad ocia lay between the Halys and the PJuphrates Its most remark- 
able towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony; 
Tyana, the birthplace of the impostor ApoUonius (cf P. V. ^ 255 b) ; and Muzaca, 
named by Tiberius, Ccesarea ad Arg^um, (o denote its situation at the foot of Mount 
ArgcBus, from whose summit, as ancient writers assert, the Euxine and the Mediter- 
ranean might both be seen. — -The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the 
name of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cahira or Sebaste, a well fortified city captured 
by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novas, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and Ni- 
copolls, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates. 

The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad Kappas, or nations whose 
names began with that letter ; the other two were the Cretans and Cilicians. 

<^ 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was C aria. Its chief towns were 
Halicarnassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius 
and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monument, one of the seven won- 
ders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of G'aria, to the memory of her hus- 
oand Mausolus ; Cnidus,'\n the. peninsula of Doris, sacred to Venus; Alahanda, on 
the Moeander; and Stratonicea, on the southern coast. 

L y c i a lay to the east- of Caria. Its chiel' towns were Telmessus, on a' gulf of the 
same name, called also Si?ms Glaucus, from the river Glaucus flowing into it ; Xauthus, 
celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed them- 
iselves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Putara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of 
Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the 
volcano ChimcBra, fabled by the poets to have been a monster subdued by Bellerophon 
(cf. P. II. § 117). Some hills at the Fromontorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the 
commencement of Mount Taurus, and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge 
adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their 
middle in water. 

See Fellovoes, Account of Discoveries in Lycia. — Cf. Amer. Eclectic, Jan. 1841. 

§ 165. Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and P a m p h y li a, two mountainous districts, 
whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were Antiochia; 
Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer ; and Creirma, a 
Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia were Perga, the capital ; Aspendus 
on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coracesiiun, 
where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. 

G i I i c i a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into 
two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or 
level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the emperor Trajan died ; 
Anamurium, opposite Cyprus; and Seleucia (Seletkeh), on the river Calycadnus. — In 
Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have received 
its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth- 
place of the Apostle Paul ; Tssus. where Alexander obtained his second triumph over 
the Persians : and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate 
the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Amanus, be- 
tween which and the sea were Pylce SyricB, a celebrated pass. — The river Cydnus is 
-emarkable for the coldness of 'its waters, by which Alexander was almost killed, and 
'.or the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks when Antony visited Cleopatra. 

% 166. Syria was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by tho 
P'uohraies ; on ♦he south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. It was 



50 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

divided imu rive profnices, Comagene, Seleucis, Ccelo-Syria, Phoenicia, and Ju.lea, 
or Palestine. 

The principal city of Comagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the birthplace 
of Lucian. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian 
goddess Astarte (cf. P. II. ^ 48), on the Euphrates ; Bercea, previously Chahjbon (now 
Aleppo), on the Chalcis, flowing into a small lake ; Antiochia, where Christians first 
received their name, on the river Oronles ; near it DayJme, with its delighiiul grove 
sacred to Apollo; Apamea (Famieh), higher up the'Orontes, which rising in the ele- 
vated regions on the eastern side of Libanus, flows by a north-west course to the 
Mediterranean; still further up, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, the worst of the 
Roman emperors ; and "on the opposite side of the Orontes," near the hmiis of this 
province, Heliopolis (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract 
admiration. 

From the map of Syria accompanying Eobinson's Researclies, Bilbec appears to be on the Leontes. — " Among the cities whicli 
are enumerated by Greek and oriental names in the geogr?phy of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, and Heliopolis or Bal- 
bec. Under the last of the Caesars, they were strong aud populous ; the turrets glittered from afar ; an ample space was covered 
with public and private buildings; and the citizens were illustrious by their spirit, or at least by their pride ; by their riches, or at 
least by their luxury. In the days of paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted to the worship of Baa!, or the sun ; but 
the decline of their superstition and splendor has been marked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a vestige remains of the temple 
of Emesa, which was equalled in poetic style to the sommits of mount Libanus; while the ruins of Balbec, invisible to the writers 
of antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European traveler. The measure of the temple is two hundred feet in length, 
and one hundred in brtadth : the front is adorned with a double portico of eight columns ; fourteen may be counted on either side ; 
and each column, forty-five feet in height, is composed of three massy blocks of marble. The proportions and ornaments of the 
rorinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks."— See the view given in Plate VU. — fi. IVood, Ruins of Balbec. Lond. 
■»7.57. fol.-e. B. Elliott, Travels in Austria, Russia, aud Turkey. Loi.d. rSSS. 2 vols 8. 

Ccelo-Syria was so named because it lay between the two -parallel chains of 
mountains, Libanus and Anti-Lihanus ; and the name is sometimes applied so as to 
include the valley of the Orontes, and also the whole valley of the Leontes, which 
rises near the western sources of the Orontes, and flows by a south-western course 
to the Mediterranean. But it is limited, in our division, to the upper part of the latter 
valley, north of mount i^ermow, the principal peak of Anti-Ubanus ; including alsa 
another valley on the east (now called Gouteh Demesk, or Orchard of Damascus), 
watered by the rivers Chrysorrhous (Pharphar) and Abana, flowing into a large lake 
below Damascus, which was the chief town of the province. — The territory east and 
north-east of these valleys as far as the Euphrates, is mentioned in connection both 
with Seleucis and with Ccelo-Syria; but more commonly under the general name of 
Syria ; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should be mentioned ; as Thapsacus 
(El-Der), the celebrated ford, passed by Cyrus in his expedition against Artaxerxes, 
by Darius after his defeat by Alexander at Issus, and by Alexander in pursuit of Da- 
rius ; and Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as the boundary of the' Roman empire 
when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region was. 
Palmyra, or " Tadmor in the desert," said to have been built by Solomon, the resi 
dence of Longinus (cf. P. V. ^ 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the em- 
peror Aurelian ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ruins. 

On the ruins of Palmyra, see R. IVbod, as cited P. IV. § 2i&. 3.— The Mudtrn Travelier.—lrl/y and Mangles, Travels in Egypt, 
&j'ria, &c. Lond. t(f22. ». 

P hcEnicia contained the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their exten- 
sive rx)mmerce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate 
defence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the besiegers. 
Berytns (Beirut), north of Sidon, was the seat of a distinguished school for the study 
of law in the age of Justinian. 

Beirut has been for several years a very interesting Hiissionary station. In its vicinity, on mount Lebanon, dwell the Maronlte 
»nd the Druzes. — Se« ./otocH's Researches. — Miisionary Herald; from the year 1823, passina. — Bmid's Memoir of PliTiy Fisk. 

§ 167. J u d ae a, or P a 1 se s t i n a, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan, of Israel, 
andof Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes;- it was afterwards 
separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally the Romans divided it 
into four reffiofts, Galilsea, Samaria,- Judaea Propria, and Peraea or Transfluviana, the 
country beyond Jordan. 

Galilaea was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews; and Su- 
perior, which, from its proximity to Coelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the Gentiles. — 
The chief towns of Upper GaHlee were Cepsuren PhiJippi, so called to distinguish it 
from another town of the same name in this province ; its original name was Laish, 
uf'erwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Caesarea Philippi, by Herod's son 
Philip; Gabara and Jofopata, bravely defended l)y the historian Josephus, when be- 
sieged by Vespasian. I'he principal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace, or Ptolemais 
(.Acre), memorable for its siege \ y Richard Cceur de Lion in the time of the Crusades; 
Ca7Uc ; Scjyphoris, afterwards called Dio Ca^sarea; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large 
lake in Galileo was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesare'h; at its northern ex- 
iremity was Choazin; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, find Bethsaida; 
Ml the o])posite side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmel and 



p. 1. ASIA. WESTE IN DIVISION. JUD^A. 51 

itahynus or Tahor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguraiion. — Between Galilee and 
Samaria stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten confederate cuies called Decapolis, which, 
dreading the power of the .1 \-s, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean 
princes, who then governed J idea. 

§ 168 a. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the capital, 
destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Heroi, who called it Sebaste, in 
honor of Augustus; CcBsarea, first called Turris Stralonices, a celebrated seaport, the 
residence of the Roman governors ; Joppa, a seaport south of CjEsarea, where An- 
dromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Perseus (P. II. "^ 122) ; Sichem, in the 
interior, the ancient capital, between the mountaios Ebal and Gerizim; it was in later 
times called Neapolia ; Lydda, called by the Greeks Diospolis; and Arimathea. 

Judaea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead 
Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we 
shall notice particularly in the next section. North-west from Jerusalem was J£?n- 
maus or Nicopolis, where the Jews were defeated by Vespasian ; directly north was 
Bethel; north-east was Jericho; south from Jerusalem was Bethlehem, the birthplace 
of Christ ; further south, Hebron, where Abraham was buried ; still further, some- 
what to the west, Beemheha, often mentioned as the southern limit of the country of 
Israel; south-west, Eleutheropolis, a very flourishing city in the time of Eusebius. 

$ 168 b. Hierosolyma, or Jerusalem, originally belonged to the Jehnsites, from whom it was 
taken by David, who made it his residence. 'J he Arabians now call it El-Kuds, the Holy. — It is 
situated on a broad elevation, having higher hills all around it ; the Mount of Olires on the east j 
on the north a ridne extending from the Ml. of Olives and bending around to the west, at the 
distance of more than a mile : on the west, hills at a greater distance sloping gently, beyond a 

ain ; on the south, the Hill of Evil Counsel rising directly on the further side of the V'alley of 
Jinnom. 

It is surrounded by walls presenting a stately appearance, of hewn stone, with towers and 
battlements, of a height varying according to the inequalities in the ground, from twenty to fifty 
feet; in circumference about two and a half geogra[>hical miles. The avrievt trails formed a 
larger circuit of about three and a h.ilf geo!ir:iphic,al miles according to Joseph us j and Jerusalem 
is said to have been anciently fortified by three walls ; but this statement must not be understood to 
mean that there were three walls around the whole ciiy. one within another; since the two 
inner walls were merely walls intersecting the city and joining the outer wall ; the hill of Zion 
was first of all enclosed within a wall : then Moriah, with Ophel, was added, and afterwards 
Akra, and a second wall was extended from the old one so as to include these ; subsequently 
Bezetha was annexed, and to protect this a third wall was constructed joining the others. 

Of the eight former gates, only the four larger are now open : the Gate of the Pillar, or Da- 
mascus Gate, on the north ; the Gaie of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west ; the Gate 
vf David, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Gate of the Tribes, or St. Stephen's Gate, on the 
Dast. The principal streets now run nearly at right angles to each other. 

The surface of the ground is diversified by five hills : the largest is Zion, in the southern part, 
rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom ; north of this and in the western part of the city its 
Jikra, separated from Zion by the valley of the Tyr'ipoeon ,' north-east from JJlira^wA east of the 
Damascus Gate is Bezetha, in the north-western part of the city ; soiuh-east from this and in the 
eastern part of the city is Moriah, which, with Bezetha, rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat ; 
south of Moriah, and at the south eastern corner of the city, is Ophel: Bezetha, Moriah, and 
Ophel n)ay be considered as parts of one ridge which extends to the south beyond the walls. 

These hills are closely encompassed on three sides by narrow valleys ; on the east the f^alley of 
Jehotihaphat ,' on the west, the Valley of Gihon, which is contitiued into the Volley of Hinnom on 
the south : at some distance from the soiuh-eastern corner of the city, the Valley of Jehoshaphat 
and that of Hinnom are connected. The Brook Kidron is but the bed of a torrent which during 
the rains of winter flows through the Valley of Jehosha[)hat to the south. The valley in which 
was the bed of the ancient Tyropceon commences in the depression between Zion and Akra (near 
the western or Hebron or Bethlehem gate), and descemiing easterly bends to the south between 
Zion and Ophel, and meets with the other two valleys at their common point of junction. 

The hill Zion was the part first occupied by David, and hence called " the city of David." 
Only the northern part of it is now within the walls ; much of the rest is literally "a ploughed 
field ;" on the north-western part is the present citadel, the lr)wer portions of the walls of whicu 
are probably the retnains of the ancient Tower of Hippie us. — On the summit of Akra is the churcn 
of the Holy Sepulchre, on the spot designated tiy d.ubttul iradilinn ;is being the Goljrotha and 
the Calvary of (he Scriptures. — Bezetha is mostly covered with low buildings or hovels, with no 
obvious traces of ancient ruins. — On .Moriah, which at the first was apparently a mound "f soliil 
rock, the Temple of Solomon was built ; the surface of the rock being leveled for the purpose ; 
and then imuiense wails were erected from the base of the rock on the four sides, and the 
interval between filled in with earth or built up with vaults so as to make on the top a large 
area, which firmed liie Court of the Temple. To this the present area of the grand iNIysque of 
Omar, or enclosure called " EI-Haram-esh-Sherif," nearlyif not wholly corresponds ; being a 
plateau or terrace neatly in the firm of a paralleloirram, supported by arul wiihin massive walls 
built up from the lower ground on all sides; the luwer portions of the walls are probably thr 
very WcJIs on which the ancient Temple rested ; ns seems to be shown by some remains of nn 
immense arch which supported the Brids's that formerly extended from the Temple across tin; 
Tyropce m to a celebrated Xystus or portico on MiMinl Zion.^In the northern p^rt of the present 
area of the .Mosque of Omar was the fortress railed the Tower of Jivtonia. rendered meinorabl.; 
in the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, who captured the city, A. 1). 70 ; at which time the Templo 
was lUterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque now on its site was built by Omar in the seven**i 
tentury. 

The ancient inhabitants depended for water, as do the modern, chiefly on cisterns ; alinnsi 
every house having now one or more excavated in the limesione rock on which the city stand."*. 
Immense cisterns also still e.xiat within the space under the area of \he Tempie. Large opei 



52 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

reservoirs or tanks, or pools, were likewise constructed in and around the city. The Upper Poo, 
and the Lmier Pool still exist ; the former west of the city, in the A'alley of Gihon ; the latter, 
on the south-west, in the Valley of Hinnom. The Pool of Bath.fluba, the Pool of Heitkiah, and 
tiie Pool of Bei/iesda, are names given to three reservoirs within the present walls : the latter ia 
at the north-east corner of the Harani-esh-Sherif ; hut there is no evidence that it is the p«;ol 
mentioned in the New Testament by the same name {lhi6eo6a), having five porches. — The only 
Fountaivs of living water now accessible are three; that now called the iVeli of JSTeheoiiah, pro- 
bably the En-Roatl of the Old Testament (Jo>h. xv. 7, 8; xviii. 16), a deep well just below the 
junction of the Valley of Hinnom with that ot Jehosliaphat ; the Fountain and I'ool of Si/oaiM, 
which is in the valley of the Tyropa3on, just above its junction with the Valleys of Hinnom and 
Jehoshaphat ; and ih*'. FuimUnn of i lie ^j/'o-i??, which is some distance from that point of jiinc- 
lion, up the Valley of Jehoshaphat : the water of the latter is accessible only by descending 
sixteen steps down an excavation in the solid rock; and an artificial subterranean passage 
extends from it ihrou{.'h Mount Ophel to the Fountain of Siloam, winding so ;is to make the 
distance 1750 feet, by which the waters of Siloam i)roceed from the Fountain of Mary the Vir- 
gin. — A fountain is said lo exist at the depth of seventy or eighty feet below the area of the 
grand mosque, flowing by some artificial passage. 

An j?9«er/«c<. supposed to be ancient, carries water across the Valley of Hinnom, around the 
sides of Mount Zion, and conveys it, as is supposed, to the Haram-esh-Sherif, or area of the 
mosque. 

East of Moriah, on the rocky elevation just beyond the Brook Kidron, are the sepulchral 
monuments called' the Tovib of Jjbsalom or J^bsalum's Pillar (of. P. HI. $ 187. 5), and Tovib of 
Zachorias. — South-east of these, on the south-western declivity of tlie Mount of Olives, are the 
excavated sepulchres called the Tombs of the Prophets. — Those called the Tombs of the Judges, 
are further up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rather west of north from the city. — The remarkable 
excavations commonly called the Tombs of the Kin^s, are about north frotn the city, on the nearer 
side of the valley : they are probably the celebrated sepulcher of the mother of Constantine, the 
Etnpress Helena, who, having embraced Christianity, spent the latter part of her life at Jeru- 
Halem, and died there at the age of eighty, about A. D. 325. 

The above outlines of the Topography of Jerusalem will be of service lo the student in reading the Scriptures, and the intense!} 
nteresting story of the siege and destruction of the ci'y by the Romans.— See Jnsephus (of. P. V. ^ 248). — Milman, as cited § 211. ii 

For fuller details as to the '1 opography, see F. G. Crinne, Jertsalem, in Ersch wid Gruber's Encyclopddie. — E. Robinson, 

Biblical Researches, as cited \ 171. In vol. iii. is a fuM list of works on Palestine. For details respecting the Temple, with Plant, 

Sc , see H. Prideaux, Connexions, &c. N. York, 1840. 2 vols. 8. with engravings — Cahriet, Diet, of the Bible, Fragments 242 — 
249. vol. iii. p. 346. Cnarlest. 1813. 4 vols. 4. — For Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, &c., see also Calmet, vol. iii. p. 164. 

^ 169 a. The southern district of Judaea was called Idiimea, or the land of Edom ; 
he chief tovCns w^ere Gera, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot oi Mount Seir. Bui this dis- 
trict, or the principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, under Arabia Pe- 
'.rcBa (^ 171). — The sea-coast was called PhilistcBa, or the land ot the Philistines, from 
A^hom the whole country is now called Palestine ; its chief towns were Gath, Ekron, 
Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. 

§ 169 b. Perse a is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. The 
chief towns were Ramoth-Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites ; Gadara, on the tor- 
-ent Hieromas, where- the Christians were severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, 
a fortress of remarkable strength ; Gamala, near the Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth- 
Ammon, in the district Ammonitis, afterwards called Philadelphia. — The Jordan 
rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through the Sea of Tiberias, falls into the lake 
Asphaltites, whence there is no exit for its waters. 

This lake is supposed to occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It has 
been said that, from its extreme saltness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and 
vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. K. Robivson, who 
visited the region in 1838, states that the water is intensely salt and bitter : but that trees and 
bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor was perceived, and nmny birds were singing among 
the trees, and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Rcpus. Apr. 1839, p. 419. 

'^ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and Eu- 
phrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were Nisibis, on a branch of the 
Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romars against the Parthiaiis; Edessa, near Syria; 
Seleucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence ot the Tigris with a branch of the Euphra- 
tes ; and Carrhep., called in Scripture Charran, for a time the residence of Abraham, 
and the scene of the miserable overthrow of Crassus. On the borders of Chaldaea 
were the plains of Cunaxn, where Cyrus was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and 
• where the ten thousai.d Greeks commenced ihat retreat so memorable in history. 

Babylonia and Chaldsea were districts separate from Mesopotamia, lying below it 
to the soufh-east. Their chiet "town was Bi.h'jlon, the most ancient and remarkable 
city of antiquity. 

Belus, its founder, rornmenred his building near the tower of Rabel, which by profane writers 
IS called after his name ; but to t»ptniramis, the wid<iw of his descendant Ninus, the grandeur 
of Babylon is a'tributable. She enclosed the c ly with ai»wall of brick cemented by bitumen, of 
almost incredible dimensions, and ornannuited it with one hundred brazen gales. The circuit 
of the city was said to have been more than sixty miles ; and so great was its length, that when 
■Cyrus had captured one extiemily of the city, the inhabitanis of the other were ignorant of the 
event until the (ollowing morning. — The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and Cyrup 
buving diverted the river irrto another channel, led his troops through the vacant bed, and sur- 
irised the Bab\ loniims, who," with their monarch Belshazzar, were at that moment celebrating 
\ fe***! in honor of ihi ir gods, and consequently made biU a feeble resistance. — The Child><;an8 



P.I. AFRICA. _ iEGYPTUS. 53 

were celebrated astronomers, but they debased the science by the admixture of judicial astro, 
logy, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated. 

On the topography and ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, see X M. Kimieir. Geographical Memoir on Perfla — Rermdl, Remark* 
on the Topography of Babylon. Lond. 1816. — Rich, Memoir on Babylon. &c. Lond.iSIS. — Bill. Repos. No, xxii. 3a5 ; No. ixiii. 
158,246^ No. xi-v. 139. 

East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdista?t from the Carduchi, a tribe 
that inhabited the northern part of the country; they are neniioned by Xenophon as 
having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand ; they are supposed still to exist in the 
modern Koords, various tribes of whom occupy the mountains of this country, and 
who are generally of a savage character. — Its chi^f towns, Niyius or Nineveh, fre- 
quently mentioned in Scripture ; the ruins of this celebrated city he opposite the mo- 
dern jl/os?/Z/ and Arhela, near which is the village Gaugamela, where Alexander 
overturned the Persian empire, by the defeat of Darius. 

^ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which was the 
large peninsula between the Srnus Persicus (Persian Guli), and the Sinus Arabiciis 
(Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta (desert), Petrcea (stony), and 
Felix (happy). 

Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldaea, and extended along the Sinus 
Persicus. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the southern part border- 
ing on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarkable among its inhabitants 
were the Sabcei, who cultivated frankincense. Macoraba was the name by which the 
Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious in the Mohammedan history; here is the 
famous building called Kaba or Kaaba, with the fabulous black stone of Gabriel. — 
Arabia Pe t rae a was a smaller portion lying south of Judea and at the head of the 
Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea, which is here divided into two bays, the eastern called 
^Lanites Sinus, and the western Heroopolites Sinus. Between these bays or arms 
were the mountains Horeb and Sinai. On the eastern was the seaport Berenice or 
Asiongaber, the Ezion-Geber of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Peira 
^called Sela by the Hebrews), embosomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea, in 
tlie district called Idumea. 

The ruins of Petra have been discovered recently, and have excited great interest from their 
striking peculiarities (being entirely excavations from the solid rock), and from the evidence 
they furnish of the fulfilment of prophecy. 

See Laburdt's Journey to Arabia Petraea, l.ond. 1S36. 2 vols 8. with 65 plates — Cf. Lond, Quart. Rev. No. cxvii, — North J}mer. 
Rev. for Jan. \S3'.—BM. Repository, vol. ix. p. 43\ .Stephens, Incidents of Travels, kc—E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in 
Palestine, Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Petrasa, Bost. 1841. 3 vols. 8. 

The observations ana inquiries of Robinson seem to have settled the question as to the mountain on which the Ten Command- 
ments were given by God to Moses; showing satisfactorily that it wai not the summit poiuted out by tradition under the name of 
Sinai or Jebel-Musa, but another suhimit a little norlh-west from it, belonging to what is called Horeb.—See the very interesting 
acconnt. vol. i. p. 87-212. 

The celebrated Smaitic Inscriplionu, which have attracted the attention of travelers, in an unknown and pectiliai alphabet, have 
lately been deciphered by .Beer, of Leipzic— See Robintmi, vol. i. p. 188, Sol.—Grty, in the Transact, of the Royal Soc. of Litera- 
ture, vol. iii. Lond. 1832. 

§ 172. The Asiatic Islands were not very important, except those in the Mare 
JEgaeum already named (^ 147). The principal other in the Mediterranean was C y- 
prus, sacred to Venus; the chief towns of which were Pup/ios, where stood the 
celebrated temple of Vetius, infamous for the debauchery and prostitution it sanc- 
tioned ; Cifium, the birthplace of Zeno, the Stoic, on the west coast ; Salamis (Fama- 
gusta), built by Teucer, on the east ; Lapethus, ArsinoH, and Soli, in the north ; and 
Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, in the interior. — The other islands were 
Broconnesus (Marmora), in the Propontis; Taprobane (Ceylon), and .^abadi (Sumatra), 
in the Indian ocean. 



III. OF AFRICA. 



9 173. The name .Vfrica was applied strictly and properly by ancient geographers, 
at least until the time of Ptolemv. to a small part of that vast peninsula of the eastern 
continent which h now de.'jignafes ; and by them Egvpt was reckoned among the 
Asiatic kingdoins. But we here use the term as including all that was knovvn to tho 
ancients of that whole country. We shall consider it under the following divisions ; 
McyW-vvs. or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, Africa Pro'ria, Numidia, Mauriia.nia, 
and Africa Interior. 

•^ 174. The general boundaries of iEoYPTUS were the Mediterranean on the nv»rih, 
S3'ria and the°Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Lyhia on the 
west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torrens JEsypti. or river of Egypt as 
called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called Pahis Sirbotiis. The 



54 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

limit between Egypt and Lybia on the west was the great dechvity and narrow pass 
Termed Cataballunos (KaTa0adixdi). Its southern limit was the smaller cataract of the 
Nile. 

One of the most striking features of Egypt was lis river, Niliis. This has two prin- 
jipal sources; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called Abys- 
sinia, and the western in the Luil<b A[o>ites, or Moiinlains of the Moon. Having passed 
through the ancient Ethioi)ia, it flows through the whole length of Egypt to the Medi- 
terranean ; not receiving a single tributary tor the last 1000 miles of its course, and at 
last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular island called Ddta from 
its shape. It had seven mouths ; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the 
others in their order proceeding towards the east, were the Balbytinum, Sebemiiti- 
cum, Phatnicum, Wendesium, Taniticum, and Pclusiacum. — Its annual inundations 
were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in great num- 
bers to convey the water over the whole country ; where the land was too high to 
allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the water ; almost every vil- 
lage, It is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many 
thousand cities and villages. 

§ 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt ; the northern part on the Me- 
diterranean was called JEgyptus Inferior; the southern part on tlu^ confines of Elhio 
pia was JEgypftis Superior or Thehais; and the portion between these, Heptanomis. — ■ 
The capital of Lower Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart of Indian merchandize ; 
during the middle ages, caravans continually passed from thence to Arsino'e. (Suez), 
on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the har- 
bor was an island named Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was built ; south 
of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egypli'xn wine was 
made. In Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been buined by the 
Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. ^ 76). — In the interior of the Del'a was Sais,. the anc'ent capi- 
tal, remarkable for its numerous temples. Between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus 
were Heroopolls, the city of the shepherd kings; and Onion, founded by a colony of 
Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, 
and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple. 

Ill Lower Ezypt, east of Ifie Delta, was the land of Goshen, accorlin? t-o tlie views nf the best modern authors. — Cf. E. JWinsoti, 
on the Exodus of the Israelites, &c. ijiW. /Jcp(.s. vol. ii. 744. Also, Researches, vol. i. 

"J^ 176. In the middle portion or Heptaitomis. one of the chief places was Memphis, 
near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient metropolis of all 
Egypt; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoe south-west of Memphis 
was an important place ; near this was the famous lake Mosris. said to have been exca- 
vated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile 
conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birhel-el.-Kurun. and believed to have 
been wholly or chiefly the work of nature; at the southern end of this lake was the 
still more celebrated Labyrinth. — Oxyryndnis was a consideralile place, said to have 
derived its name from a sharp- rosed fish (o|"f f'vyxoi) worshiped by the inhabitants.— 
Ir, Upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thehais to 
this division; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos ; although de- 
stroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying 
a space of 27 miles in circumference, including the modern Karnak, Luxor, and othei 
villages; near it was the famous statue of Memnon. — Tenlyra (Denderah). was north 
of 'I'hebes, and also presents interestins ruins ; especially the large temple of Isis, 
from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transported to France and 
made the subject of much speculation (cf. Amer. Qiiarl. Rev. vol. iv). — Between 
Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Cop- 
Ins: from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert 
to Berenice on the Simis Arahicus. Considerably to the south of Thebes was 0?ribi 
made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the wor 
ship of the c'lcodile. Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the 
place of Juv nal's exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer sols:ice, its 
bottom beii i, then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over 
it. Not fai from Syene was the island on which Elephojifine stood, of which interest- 
ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Movs Basaiiiles, mountains of touch- 
stone, from which the Egvprians used to make ornamental vases. — South of Syene 
were the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red eranite (Syenite) cross the bed 
of the river, and throw its waters in'o ati impetuous and foaming torrent. In this region 
were the quarries whence the vast obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyp- 
tian. temples w(M-e taken. There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus. which 
should be mentioned; Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt ; Arsin-^e (now 
Suez), at the head of the Sijius Heronpolites, the western arm of the Red Sea; and 
Mvoshormvs. called also. Po'rtus Veneris, midway between ihem ; they were commercial 
places, goods. being transported from them to the Nile. A canal, called Fossa Trajani 
connected Arsinoe with that river. 



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p. I. AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. 55 

In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the cuUivuted and 
inhabited spots called Oasis Magna, and Oasis Parva, the Great and the liittle Oasia. 
The latter was in the division termed Hepranomis, south of lake Mceris. The Greav 
Oasis is in ihe part that was called Thebais. It was a place of banishment in the time 
of the later Roman empire ; yet said to have been a delightful residence, and some 
times called by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed. 

'^ 177. 'i'he ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest interest 
in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various teinples and other edifices, of v/hich 
splendid remains are found in various places, the following rank high among the objects 
of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of 'these were removed to Rome; of 
the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks 
called CleopaSra' s Needles at Alexandria, and Pompey'' s Pillar, also at Alexandria. An 
obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be ereced 
in that city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the 
seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the ancient 
Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. 'i'hose at Gize are the most cele- 
brated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. 
Several others have been opened in recent times. They all contain chambers evidently 
used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. IV. § 231. P. II. ^ 96. 3.)— 3. Catacombs. These 
are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most re- 
markable are near Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot 
of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks, and extend, 
it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. — 
The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included 
numerou? subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead ; over these was 
an iintnense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris 
(J 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images a?i.d statues. ()ne of the most re- 
markable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. II. *$> 117) is near the great pyra- 
mids. A very celebrated colossus is that cornmonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. 
P. II. ?i 74. p. IV. "5i 169. 2. § 231. 1).— The Egyptian monuments are covered with 
inscriptions in Hieroglyphics (cf. P. IV'. § 16). 

Much researcli has been empltiyeit in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A new decree of interest wai 
awaliened in the whole suhject by Ihe celebrated expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion nf Eizypt, he took with him a 
de'achnient of no less than one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (vaLOJis) selected for the purpose. "Thii 
body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invadini^ army, was liberally supplied with books, philosophical instruments, 
and all the means of prosecutin? the several departments of knovvledie." — The splendid work, published under the emperor's 
patronage, and style! Descriplimi de VEgypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. IV. § 169). 

Manv other valualsle works illustratin? the his'ory and monuments of Eaiypt have been published during the present century, 
some from members of the company of savans above named. That of Down holds a hi^h rank ; entitled Trajelx in Upper ana 
L(ywer Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates. — The following works relate to this subject. Leigli's Travels 
in E»ypt. — BdzonCs Travels. — Joinard's Description de I'Esypte. — Hamilton's .'Egyp'iaca. — Letronne. Reclierches sur I'Egypte. 
— Russell's View of Ancient and Modern E^ypt, in Harper's Fain. Library. No. xxxiii. — /. .Miot, Memoires de /'Expedition en 
E»ypte, &c. Per. 1?I4.— / G. Wilkinson. Topt-.sraphy of Thebes, and aeneral View of Esypf Lond. 1836. 8.—/. G. IVilkinson, 
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Lond. IS37. 3 vols. 8. — We may add, the T ra ve 1 s of CVarftc. A'orrferi, S/iau), 
Pococke. Cf. Sappkment to Eucyclop. Britann. article Egypt. — Lond. Quart. Reu. vol. xiii. I. xvi. 1. xvii. ISl. xix. 178. xxiv. 
p. 139. — imer. Quart. Rev. No. vii. — For. Quart Rev Nos. xxxii and xxxiii. — .im. Bilil. Repns. No. xxiii. — See also references 
given P. IV. § 216. i. § 2'!0. 1. § 238. 3. § 243. 3.— A history of Pompey's Pillar is given in /. IVhite's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1S2I. 

^ 178. tEthtopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the coun- 
try lying south of Egypt ; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly 
were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient 
rimes; on the coast were the TroglodytcB. said to inhabit caves of the earth. It seems 
also to have contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. 

The most important places were Napata. Meroe, Auxume. and Adulis. — Anxw/ie 
(Axum) was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazzi;). 'he eastern branch of 
the Nile. Its ruins still exist. " In one square, Bruce found 4-0 obelisks, each formed 
of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscriptions, hut no hieroglyphics. One 
of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — Here was found the monument usually called the 
Inscription of Axum (cf. P. IV. "Ji 92. 5.). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus 
Arabicus; having some celebrity from two inscriptions there found (cf. P. IV. §92. 
5). — Meroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction wiih ihe Astaboras ; near the 
modern .S'/)pnr/y, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract . between these 
rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand 
emporiuiii of the caravan trade l)ctween Ethiopia and Egypt and the north ot Africa. 
The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone still mark its site. — JVapata waa 
farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. 

These rejions have also been explored in modern times, and splendid ruins have been found scattered along 'he valley ot u.e Ni!t 
The following are some nf the snurce^ of infnrma'ion on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, cited P. IV. § 1 18 I. — Tr*vsli 
of Salt and Lord Vnlentm ; of Burckhardt : Franc. Oaii {P. IV. § 243. 3), and especially of CatlUaud — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. 
vol. xvi. 13 lix. 174 —//osfeinj' Travels in Ethiopia, Lond, 1835, 8. 

•{i 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from Msijplns on the east" to the 
Svrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite portion on the fsouth. TiiP 



5fi CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

teiin was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most 
limited sense, it included only the region beiweeu Egypt and the Syrlis Major (Gull 
of Sidra). — 'In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast only the two districts Ma^- 
marica and Cyrenaica. We include under Libya also the portion farther west called 
Regie Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named. 

Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to 
possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents; some of them, named 
PsylU, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom 
out of the wound. In an Oasis, now El Wah, south of Marmarica, stood the cele- 
brated temple of Jupiter Amnion (P. III. § 71), and near it \h.e fountain of the sun, 
whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, 
and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having encountered great difficulties, suc- 
ceeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. 

"Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wah {the bushes), the northe.Ti 
Oasis. He found, as Hornesiiann iiad, the tops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salt, and 
wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus related 
two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has heen considered as the 
temple of .lupifer Ammon ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him see this 
'work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet water, 
whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown was told 
by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni ; who says 
he proved the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this sprmg is warm in the mornings and 
evenings, much nmre so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni pos- 
sessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the air which had 
changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lujtd. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 95. 

Cyrenaica, or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and. the Syrtis Major, 
or altars of the Phileeni. It contained five cities ; Cyrene, founded by a Greek colony, 
the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades ; Apollonia, a celebrated seaport ; Ftole- 
mais, at first called Barce ; Arsinoe, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the 
gardens of the Hesyerides, famous lor their golden apples, and the residence of the 
Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf. P. II. ^ 115. Ed. Rev. No. 95, p. 228).— West 
of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, from its three cities, Tripolit ana (Tripoli) ; 
its cities were Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name 
near Carthage ; CEa, the present city of Tripoli ; and Sahrata, a Roman colony; and 
Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast ; 
he says that they fed on the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it imme- 
diately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quick- 
sands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners ; here, also, was the lake 
Tritonis, sacred to Minerva. 

There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — The 
situation of Cyrene is dpscrihed as exceedingly beautiful. — "It is built on the edge of a range 
of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the summit of a 
lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may 
be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of 
which it commands an extensive view over ihe table land, which, extending east and west as 
far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward, and then descends abruptly 
to the coast. Advantage has heen taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads 
leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instances by narrow flights 
of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives 
of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep fiir- 
rowins the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these 
galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural 
facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, were 
ornamented with sarcophasi and snonumental tombs ; and the whole sloping space between Ihe 
galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit 
very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble, 
ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmansliip, was found in a large 
cxcavaiion. In seviral of ihe excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, repre- 
eenting historical, alieg"rical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of Hercu- 
laneum and Pompeii. (<'f P IV. J 226). — In Ihe region of Cyrenaica are several caverns con- 
taining stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that 
this fact, together with the e.vistence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may 
have given ri*e to the story of the petrified city, of which, under the name of Ras Sevt, marvelous 
accounts have been related to travelers in Africa." 

See Modem Traveler.— F. IV, Sc H. Beechy, Expedition to Northern Coast of Africa. Lond. 1828, 4. 

At Tysdrvs are still found ruins of Roman structures ; particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, 
" consisting formerly of fiur rows of columns in tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades." 
The inner area is said to be 300 feel in length and 200 in breadth ; and the whole circumference 
1570 feet ; the height is estimated to have heen at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is 
nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved. 

■^ee Pev. C. F. Ewald's Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine, Jan. 13, 1838. 

*o 180. Next to Tripojitaha was the province of Africa Propria, of which the capi- 
ta, was (^'trthago. This-city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and 
'»v Its extensive cotnmerce became one of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its 
iftadel was called Dyrsa, because it was said that Dido, on coming here, purchased 



p. I. AFRICA. NUMIDIA. MAURITANIA. 57 

as much ground as she could encompass with a ^vpcra, or hide, and then, having cut 
the hide into strips, took in the space originally covered by the city. 

Carthage is immnilalized by pnets and historians on account of the three wars which it sus- 
tained ajrainst the Romans. The last of these wars resulted in the total destruction of the city 
by Scipio Africnnus the younger, B. C. H6. The city is said to have been above twenty niilea 
in circumference; it being set on fire by the Romans, the conflagration lasted seventeen days. 
A new city was built by ihe emperor Augustus at a small distance from tliC s:te of the ancie'nt. 
The new Carthage was taken from the Romans by Genseric, A. I). 4h9, and for more than a cen- 
tury afterwards was the capital of the Vandal empire in Africa. It was finally destroyed by the 
Saracens towards the end of the seventh century. A single aqueduct is said to be the chief trace 
of it found in n)odern times. 

The other remarkable towns in this district were Times or Timeta (Tunis), where 
Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner ; Clupea, near the Promoniorlum Mercurii 
(Cape Bona) ; Adrumetum ; Thapsus, where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba ; and 
(Jlica, where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, 
where Regulus slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. 

§ 181. NuMiDiA was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, ruled by 
Massinissa, and that of the Masssesyh, under the government of Syphax ; but after 
the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom under Massinissa. The capi- 
tal was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable for 
its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small river Eubricafus, the episcopal seat of Saint 
Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the interior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zama, where Han- 
nibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of The desert were Thala and Capsa. 

'^' 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Its 
chief towns were C/Bsarea, whence the eastern part was called Cassariensis; and 
Tingis (Tangiers), from which the western received the name Tingit ana. This 
country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating it from Numidia. to some dis- 
tance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after their conquest over these regions, 
planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which 
some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Ex- 
ploratio ad Mercurium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this terri- 
tory were named Oceanus Allanticiis, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, 
which bounded Mauritania on the south, and terminated at two different points on 
the coast, the northern ridge being termed Atlas Minor, and the southern Atlas 
Major. — Mo7is Ahyla wa.s the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Medi- 
terranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled 
pillars of Hercules {Herculis Columncp). 

% 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Afkica In- 
ferior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — The Ga^.tuh, and 
Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dweUing within it. The Nigritce 
were placed about the river Niger. I'he Great Desert was called Desert a LibycB In- 

terioris. On the coast west of this were the IilsuIcb Fortunatoc; called also Cana- 

ria, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence 
their modern name Canaries. — South of these were the Insulcs Hesperidum. the mo- 
dern Cnpe Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides 
(cf. <?» 179). — West of this coast the ancients also placed the island Atlantis, said to 
have existed once, and to have been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was re- 
presented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerful. 

Some have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjectured 
that the Canaries, Madeira Isles, and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus described ; 
and others have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of America. 

The la'ter opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows; An Attempt to show that America must be known to the 
Ancients, tfC. by an American Englishman, Paslnr of a Church in Boston. Boston, New England, MDCCLXXIII. — Some have 
imagined that this island was situated in the Northern regions ; Bailly, Lettres sur I'Atlantide de Platon, &c. Paris, 1779. 8.— — 
Bee AfaJr€-Br«n'j Geography.— 5ory de S<. Vincent, Essai sur ranlique Allantide. Par. 1804. 4.— The anciett story ii g^ven io 
Qw Critiat or Atlantictu of Plato. 



VIII a. 




XHVJ HXKO^ 



xavj Hxaog 



LNTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



Prelhninary Remarks. 

%\M. Cheonology treats of the computation of time and of the dates of events. If 
is comparatively a modern, science. Among the ancients there was scarcely any sys- 
tematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly important science. Accurate chro- 
nology is essential to all reasoning from historical facis; the mutual dependence and 
relations of events cannot be traced without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been 
called one of the eyes of history, while geography with equal propriety has been said 
to be the other. Chronology is ajso an important aid to the memory, if properly con- 
sidered, in studying history and biography. 

In treating this subject, altliough our design recinires a special reference to Classical Clironolofrn, 
yet from the nature of the sulijecl we must introduce some tilings which belong rather to tha 
science in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes of com- 
puting it ; and endeavor lo present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full study 
of the classical historians and of ancient history. 

Chkonology may be considered as consisting of two parts; the first, measuring 
time and adjusting its various divisions; the second fixing the dates of historical events 
and arranging them in order. 



I. — Of measuring Time and adjusting its divisions. 

§ 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested to all 
men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, months, and 
years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or the apparent revolution 
of the sun around her; the month from the periodical changes in ihe moon; the year 
from the annual motion of the earth in her orbit round the sun. — These three division.s 
are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief embarrassment in the, science of 
Chronology ; it has, in point of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in 
a system of measuring time as to have the coviputed time and the actual time perfectly 
m agreement or coincidence. 

"^ 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was dis- 
tinguished, it is likely, from the night ; extending from sunrise to sunset only. It was 
afterwards considered as including also the night, or time between sunset and sunrise. 
But the beginning of the day has been reckoned differently by different nations, for 
'civil purposes; at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of 
India; at sunset, bv the Jews, Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese; at midnight, 
by the Egyptians, Romans, and moderns generally. — Astronomers in their calculations 
considt-r the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to 
Priestley. There have also been various modes of subdividing the day —" 'Ihe di- 
vision of lime into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher (ffidip. ^Egypt. t. ii. 
part 2). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of a day. Herodotus ob- 
serves that the Greeks learnt fiom the Egyptians [Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 1091 among 
other things, the method of dividing the day into, twelve parts ; and the astronomers 
of Cathaya still retain this method. The division of the day into twenty-four hours 
was not known to the Romans before the Punic war." (Tegg.) • 

^ 187. The Greeks, in the time oi Homer, seem not to have used the division into 
bours ; his poems present us with the more obvious pp^ts of the day, morning (')is). 
noon (^£<roj rmap), and evfning {6ii\r)), But before the time of Herodotus, they wero 
accustomed to the division of the day, and of the night also probably, into 12 parts. 
They were acquainted also with the division of the day and night into four parts each, 
according to the Jewish and Roman custom. 

The Bomans subdivided the day and night each into four parts, A'hich were called 
vigils [vigilicp) or watches. They also considered the day and the night as each di- 
vided into 12 hours; three hours of course were included in a vigil. — The day vigiU 

59 



60 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

were designated simply by the numerals prima, secunda, lerlia, qua? '.a; but as the 
second vigil commenced with the third hour, the third vigil with the sixth hour, and the 
fourth with the ninth hour, the terms prima, terlia, sexta, and nona, are also used to 
signify the four vigils of the day. '1 he night vigils were designated by the names ves- 
I'fa, media ttox, gallicinium, conliciiiium. 

It is sometimes slated, that the first vigil and first hour of the day commenced at what we cal 
o'clock A. M. ; the third vigil (vi^'ilia tertia), and sixth hour (li<ira sexta), at 12 o'clock, noon; 
rhe corresponding vigils and hours of night, at what we call 6 o'clock P. JVI,, and 12 o'clock, mid- 
night. This statement may be sufficiently accurate in general ; but it must be remeniber«^d, that 
•he Roman hours and watches were of unequal length ; the first hour of the day began with sun- 
rise, and the twelfth ended at sunset; and the first hour of the night began at sunset, and the 
twelfth ended at sunrise. Of course, the hours of the day in summer were longer than those of 
the night, and in the winter they were shorter. Of P. IH. $ 228. 

^ 188. Different devices have been employed for marking and making known 
these parts of the day. The sun-dial was used by the Babylonians and Jews; and by 
the latter, watchmen were maintained to announce the time. The Greeks borrowed 
the sun-dial from the Babylonians, and called it the Heliotrope {h^^iorpo-Kicv), or Gno- 
mon {yv(onMv) • but the latter term properly designates the needle or index which cast 
the shadow on the dial. — The Romans, besides the dial {horologiurn, solarium), em- 
ployed also the Clepsydra, for some account of which see P. 111. ^ 228. 

Several specimens of the ancient sun-dial are still preserved ; one is said to be still remaining 
nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. "Upon each side of the 
octagonal building commonly called the tower of the viiids, was also placed a vertical sun-dial ; 
t'le gnomon or index projected from the side, while the lines indicating the hour were cut upon 
the wall. The lines of the dial upon the wall are distinctly extant at the present day: and 
.although the gnomons have disappeared, the places where they were inserted are still visible." 
Besides stationary dials, the ancient? had portable ones of metal,. which were termed Phurema- 
tica. (Of Stuart's Diet, of Architect, vol. ii.) — An instrument called a water-cluck was in consi- 
derable use in some parts of Europe a few centuries ago. Striking clocks are said to have beeK 
invented by the Arabians about A. D. 800. — Watches were first made in Germany. A. D. 1477. 

See Birthoud, Hisloire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horologes. Par 1802. 2 vols. i.—Eritesli, de .*^olal•iis, in bis Opnacula — 
G. H. Marlini, Abhandtung von den Sonnenuliren der Alten. Leipz. 1777 — Salher an I Falconet, Sur les horologes des Anciens. in 
the Mem. de I'Jlcad. des Tnscr. vol. iv. p. 148; and vol. xx. p. 440. Cf. vol. iii. p. 174, on the Giionton. — Smith, Diet of Anri- 
quities, art. Hm-ulngium. — Gough, on a Roman Horologiuni found in Italy, Arcfixologia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. x. p. 172, 
with a plate. — For delineations of several ancient sun-dials, see Calm.et, as cited § 168 b. vol. iii p. 363. 

^ 189. Themotith. This division, without much doubt, had its origin in the various 
phases or changes in the moon. It included the time of the moon's revolution round 
the earth, or between two new moons, or two successive conjunctions of the sun and 
moon. The mean period is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; it was considered to be 
29^ days ; and the ancients commonly reckoned the month as consisting alternately 
of 29 and 30 days. 

The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and termed those which had 30 days, 
TrXnptis (full), and Siha(j)6ivol (ending on the \Olh day) ; those of 29 days they termed 
KoX'Xoi {hollow or deficient), and iwaip^ivoX {ending on the 9th day). Twelve lunations 
thus computed formed the year ; but it fell short of the true solar year by about 11 days 
and a quarter, making in four years about 45 days. To reconcile this and bring the 
computation by months and years to coincide more exactly, another month was inter- 
calated every two years ; and in the first two years a month of 22 days ; and in the 
next two, a month of 23 days ; thus after a period of four years the lunar and solar 
years would begin together; this was called ihe TsroasTripis. But the effect of this 
system was to change the place of the months relatively to the seasons; and another 
system was adopted. This was based on the supposition that the solar year was 365 
days and a quarter, while the lunar was 354 ; which would in a period of 8 years give 
a difference of 90 days; the adjustment was made by intercalating, in the course of the 
period, three months of 30 days each; the period was called 'OKTaer>;pt?. Its invention 
was attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos ; it was universally adopted, and was followed 
in civil matters, even after the more perfect cycle of Meton was known ; one reason 
may have been the reciprocal adaptation between the Octaetens and the Olympiad, the 
former including exactly two of the latter. 

^ 190. " The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with thosn 
of the corresponding Juhan months, as near as they can be given. In this Hst Scali- 
per's account has been followed, which, upon the whole, we believe the most cor- 
rect. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised but a few days of the latter 
part of our June, and the greater part of July, the latter month will be given as the 
corresponding one. — 1. 'EKarnixPaicJv, July; so called from the great number of Heca- 
tombs which were usually sacrificed in this month. — 2. Msrayeirvicjv, August; so called 
from the sacrifices which were then offered to Apollo Msrayetrviog, because on this 
.month the inhabitants of Melite left their island and removed to Attica. — 3. Bor/^po/itw*/, 
S rpt ember ; which was so called from the festival termed Bor,Sp()ma. — 4. Uvaveil'tdjv, 



p. I. DIVISION OF TIME. THE MONTH. 61 

T^owmher; so called from Jupiter Mat/iia/crr/j, the boisterous, because in this moiith the 
weather was very tempestuous. — 6. Uoaeiosow, December; in which month sacrifices 
were offered to YloaeiSan', Neptune; as if it were called Nepfime's month. — 7. rajjLrjXtwv, 
January; which was sacred to Juno TajjrjXwi, the goddess of marriage. — 8. '^vdearr)- 
piwv, Fehriiury; which took its name from the festival of the sa ne name. — 9. 'EXa- 
<l)r]0oXtu)v, March; so called from the festival 'EXaiprifjdXia, which was sacred to Diana 
'EkacpriPoXoi, the huntress, because this was the month for hunting stags. — 10. ^lovvo- 
X'-'-^^i April; in whi(,h sacrifices were otfered to Diana Moiunxt'a, from the harbor oi 
this name, in which she had a temple. — 11. Qapyri^nov, May; in which month sacri- 
fices were offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. — 12. ^Ki-i'>h4>^i>^^v, June ; so 
called from a festival of the same name celebrated in this month in honor of Mi- 
nerva. Every month was divided into -rpia oexnixepa, three decades of days. '1 lie 

Itirst of which was called ^'?>'o? dpxou'evov or laraixiuov, the decade of the heglnuing ; the 
fcecond, t^nvdi ixtcovvros, the decade of the middle; and the third, i-^nvui (pBiuovrog, or 
navu^uvooj the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was called veojxrivia, 
because it happened on the nevv moon; the second, devrepa iaTaixivov, and so on to 
iEKarrj larauevov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the 
eleventh day, was called ttpmtti neaovvroi, the first of the middle, or n-pwrrj Im 6iKa, the 
first after ten; the second, SEvrepa ixeGovvros, and so on to the twentieth day (ei^ai), or 
the last day of the second decade. The first day of the third decade was called Tpwr,-/ 
in' eU-dSi, or TrpcJTt] cpdii^ovTo^, and so on. The last day of the mouth was denominated 
by Solon hrf Kai via, the old and nev), as one par' of the day belonged to the old, and 
the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the last day 
of the month received from him the name of A»?m'7''P"»j." {Cleaveland.) 

On Ihe Attic months, cf. Classical Journai, ix 324, 559 — L. Ideler, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c). 

^ 191a. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months; but 
Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — But as thi? 
formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, an extra- 
ordinary month {mensis intercalaris, called also Macedonius) was to be inserted every 
other year. The intercalating of this and the whole care of dividing the year was en- 
trusted to the Pontifices (P. III. *^ 228), and they managed, by inserting more oi 
fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they for any reason might 
choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, 
so that the winter months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into sum 
mer {Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in 
tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speaking of 
the year C?' 192). — The names of the Roman months were the following; Martius, 
March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romulus, in whose arrangement of the 
year this month was the first ; Aprilis, derived by some from the verb aperio, the 
month in which trees and flowers ope?i their buds; JSlaius. May, from Maia, mother 
of Mercury, Junius. June, from Juno; Quintilis, the fifth month, afterwards named 
Julitis, July, from Julius Caesar; Sextilis, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, Ironi 
Augustus Caesar ; September, seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; De- 
cember, tenth; Januarius, January, from Janus; Februarius, February, so called from 
the purifications Ftbrua performed in this month (P. III. ^ 230), being the last of the 
year. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans personified the Months and the Seasons as well as the Hours , 
a further account of these personifications is given in P. II. $ 105. 

In Plate IX. are representations of tlie Four Seasons, as sculptured on tlie Arch (.f Severus (cf. P. IV. § 18?. 2). 

"5> 191 b. The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Ka 
lenda; or Calendce, Nonce, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month ; 
the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month, excepting March, May, 
July, and October; in which four months the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on 
the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted backwarus 
from these three fixed points, including always the day from which the reckoning began : 
8. g. the last or thirty-first day of December was called the second from the Calends 
of January, ■pridie [ante] Kalendas Januarii ; the last day but one or 30' h of Decem- 
ber, was called the third from or before the Calends of January, tertio [die ante] RcL 
Jan.; and so on back to the 13ih day. which was called hliis; the 12th was pridie 
Idns, and soon back to the 5th. which was the Nonce; the. 4th,, by this plan ol 
reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. 

u'. La Name, CalenHrier Rnmain, in Ihe Mem Acad lixcr. vol. xxvi. p. 219. 

A finnian Calendar, compiled frnm Ovid, Cnlumelln. and Pliny, ivhirh no'es the risiiie and SPttin? of Ihe stars, the Roman (tM 
\als, &€., is eiven in Paulys Encyclopadie (cited P. III. ^^ 13. h) ; it may le seen in Smtlh's Diet, of Aiitiq. art. Ca/e?idar.— See Hist 
Foggini, as cited P. IV 5 133. 6. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division pronerly answering 10 our weeks ; althouph 
l!ie foHiier had their decailc of davs (J 19()i : and the latter their vumliiKr, or market days occur 
ring every vivth tiny (P III. ? 229). But the Egyptians and orientnl natl.');is had a u eei< of sevsr 
days. This division {liehdomades) was introduced among the Romans, it ia said, not far from «1jm 



J»2 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

noginnlng of the third century aftpr Clirist. The days were named after the planets or pagan 
gods: Dies Solis, Sunday; LuntB, Monday; Martis, Tuesday; Alercurii, Wednesday; Juvis, 
'I'hursday ; F'eneris, Friday ; Satiirni, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the 
days had a similar origin, as is seen by observing tlieir Saxon derivation ; SunnadcBg, Sun's day ; 
^(jvanrhca-. Moon's day ; Tuesd/c^r, (la\ of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; H''udensda;ir, day of Wodin or 
Hdin, a norther?) deity; Thursdcrg, day of Tlior, a deity answering to Jupiier; Frii-dirg, day of 
Frigga, the Venus of tlie north; Sceterdao-, day of Saster or Sealer (i.e. Saturn, cf. P. 11. $16.2.) 

§ 192. T/ie year. This division was pfo!)ably not formed until some considerable 
advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long afier its first adop- 
tion before it attained to any thing like aii accurate lorm. — The most ancient year of 
which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, 
thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured that this gave rise to the divi- 
sion of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is slill preserved. But it 
was soon found that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the 
earth ; and an addition of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days; 
this IS ascribed to the Thehans. The Grecian year, however, as established by So- 
lon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a 
quarter. 

The niaiiner in which the Greeks made their computation by the lunar months to agree with the solar year, has already been 
expl-.ned (§ IS9) Cf. Gibert, L'annee Grecque, in the Mem. Acad. Imcr. vol. x.xxv. p. 133. 

The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius 
Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their com- 
putation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned C^ 191), and hke- 
wise the confusion which resulted from it. This Cassar attempted to remedy (cf. P. 
W % 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 
days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 
days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of co».fasio?i. And to' secure a proper 
allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 
years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in ;he reckon- 
ing of every 4th year; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This 
is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after 
the 6th (sexfus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called bissexlus; hence the 
phrase bissextile year still in use. 

Rut in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. bef >re a whole day had been gained ; because 
conipuleJ time, instead of gainina: 6 hours a year, 6;ained only 5 hours 48 m. 57 sec., and in four years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 
48 sec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted too soon by 44 minules and 12 seconds ; of course, computed tin)e, by this p!an, lost 
44 m, 12 sec. every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of com|)Uteil lime, of one day ; i. e. com- 
puted time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 1582 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 1.1th 
attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the hisserrtile., every lOOth yeir except- 
ing each 400th yt-ar. By the Julian year, computed time loses 11 m. 3sec. a year, which makes about 19 hours in 100 years; drop- 
ping the mlercalary day on the lOOth year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours.; dropping it on the 
next lUOlh year gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third lOOih year ; and in this way computed lime gains 
cf actual lime, in 300 years, 15 hours; if on the next lOOlh year, i.e. lie fourih, the iniercalary day be inserted, computed time 
loses for that century 19 hours; but to meet this loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each, and in all 15 
hours, so that the loss is only (19—15) 4 hours at the end of 400 years By tliis method the dift'erence between computed and actual 
time cannot amount to a day in 25(X) years. In thisjsystem, called the Grei^O'ian Calendar, the years 1600, 200n, 2400 are intei'- 
ealary ; and the years 1700, 1?00, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, &c., not —The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Portu- 
gal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic Germany, in I5S3 ; in Proiestant Germany and Denmark, in 1700; 
in Sweden, 1753. In Englaiid H was adopted in 1752, by act of Parliam nt directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14lh, as 
computed lime l.ad lost 1 1 days. This was called the change from Old loNew Style. — In i8:'2, Russia was said to be the only coi:ntrj 
where the Julian yt-ar or the Old Style was used. II is, however, rp'aiiied in the Greek and Armenian churches. (.T/iss. Hirald, fo) 
Dec 1835, p. 454.') — On the Gregorian Calendar, see Ch. Claviis. Romani Calendani a Gregorio XIII. P. M. reslituti Explicalio. 

Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one tiin* 
considered it as beginning in Marcii, but afterwards in .Taniiary. 'Ihe Greeks placed its com- 
mencement ill HecatombKon, at the summer solstice The Christian clergy used to begin it af 
the 25tli of March. The same was practiced in England and the American coionies until A. D. 1752, 
on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. 

^ 193. Cydex. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division 
of time into days, months, and years, great advantage is derived from the inven- 
tion of Cycles. Tnese are periods of time so denominated from the Greek kvkXos, p 
circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term 
cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period of 4 years; the Ocfae- 
feris. or period of 8 years; and the Roman LuxirKin. a period of 5 years; and also iht 
Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, compre- 
beiided in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed ihe cycle of 
irregory. — Besides these, it seems important fo mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar 
Cycle, the Cycle of Inrliclion, and. the Juliaii Period. 

See F. Nolan, as cited § 20'> — H. Dodwell, de veteribus Graecorum Romanorumqiie Cyclis, &c Di'sert. decern. Lond. 1701. 4 — 
^itbuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist of Rome, vol. i. p. 2 9. el. Phil. 1835. 

"^^ 194. The Lunar Cycle is 6 period of 19 years. Its object is to accommodate the 
computation of time by the. moon to the computation by the sun or adjust the solar 
tnd Uina: vears. THe nearest divi.sion of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve 



ES 



^is^r^Tiix^sri^^^ 



. vV\VV^\n 



][T^>t»4m^m'\T \v<'"\\ X XXV vv\-^v\^-^\ ^v ^ ■^m»i\\%sk.^' 




p. I. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 63 

lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of the solar year by about 11 days. 
Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it 
did on the preceding year; e. g. if in September of the present year fall moon occurs 
on the I6th, the corresponding full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th ot Sep- 
tember. — Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by 
the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the 
sauje time. 

This Cycle was invented by Melon, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 430. 
Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar jears ($ 189), and this im- 
provement was at the time received with nniversal a-ppro!iation ; but not being perfectly accu- 
rate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of 
Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it v.-as 
discontinued when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. "TheCouiicil of Nice, however, 
wishing to establish souie method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of the sun, 
with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the purpose ; 
and from its great utility they caused the numbers of it to he written on the calendar in golden 
letters, which has obtained for it the name of the Golden Number. " The name of Golden J^imi- 
ber is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanac. 

?i 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the 
week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consis^ts of 52 weeks and 
one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let the seven letters 
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied 
to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A will stand 
for Monday, and Sunday coming on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th let- 
ter. The year will end with Monday, as it began with it; and A, the next year, will 
stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6lh day of the year, and be represented 
by F. Thus the year will com.mence one day later every common year, and Sunday 
will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retrograde order, G, F, E, 
&c., and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year, or there were no leap year, the 
year would, after seven years, again begin on Monday, the same iay with the first 
year supposed. But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the 
regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is 
not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. 

This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the 
Dominical Letter. Chronologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the 
seven days of the week; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter which represents 
Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- 
nomical books. 

§ 196. The Cycle -of hidiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and primary use 
of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have 
been established by Constantine the Great, in the fourth century, as a period at the end 
of which a certain tribute should be paid by the different provinces of the empire. Pub- 
lic acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle. 

The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the 
Julian Feri^d, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a com- 
mon language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which 
should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years might be easily 
applied. To accomphsh this, he combined the three cycles of the moon, sun, and in- 
diction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which produces 7980, after which 
all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same 
number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin 
church, and tracing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together 
was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year ol the Chris- 
tian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. 

This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowiedsed epoch, or fixed 
year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch', it seems to be unnecessary 
Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixer 
standard 



11. — Of fixing the Dates of historical events and arranging thein in order, 

^ 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign 
"he proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of this par'. 
A'e shall notice ihe following topics ; {A) The method? employed io ascei;tain the dates 
of events, or the time when they occurred ; (B) The epochs and eras which have been 
employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological tables 
qind charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical C.hronology. 

^ 198. (^1) Methois employed to ascertai?) the dales of ev(7ils, — Here we obserV'- 



64 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we wil! notice that furnished by 
observations on generations of nun or successions of Kings. — It has been supposed 
that the average length of a king's reign, or ot a generation of men, may be estimated 
by comparing a sufficient numl)er of tacts. — When this average is taken, and \vc are 
told by a writer how many g°.neralions lived, or how many kings reigned, between two 
events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either event is 
known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest 
writers, and is used in the Bible. l"he Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it. Gene- 
rally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; three oi them 
equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Newton employed this means of ascertaining dates, and 
maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 years; and for generations, 
29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33, it reckoned by others. On these 
principles he attempted to rectify ancient chronology, giving to many events a date 
more recent than other authors. 

It may he desirable to give a further expliination of this method by two illustratiovs. {a) The 
date of the return of the Heraclida to Peiopotiiiesiis is disputed ; but the date of the Battle of 
riiermopylaR is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a suc- 
cessi(m ni^ 17 kings ; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return 
nf the fferaclidse B. C. (480 plus 340) 820 ; a date 2b0 years later than as given by other chrono- 
logers. — (b) The dale of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hi[)pocrates, living at the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from j4:]sculapius by father's side, and 19ih fiom 
Hercules by mother's side, and that ^sculapius and Hercules were both Argonauts ; that is, 
there werG 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two events. Taking the 
niediun) 17^ and multiplying by 29 gives 567; making the dale of the Argonautic Expedition, 
R. C. (431 plus 567) 998; ;^26 later than by other chronologers. 

But there are two grand objections to this m^ihod of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccuracy 
and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Secuvdly, 
the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kinirs or giving a genealogy, often om.it 
several of the series. This is done in Matthew, cli. i., for the sake of reducing the number of 
generations between the great epochs mentioned in tlie 17th verse, to exactly /w?trtec7i. 

^ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and cltanges. This method is 
in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomical principles perfectly 
settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes. 

(a) Eclipses, 'the ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are re- 
corded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events in history, 
and described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who can calculate 
with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. 

We will give illustrations. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syra- 
cusans, says that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, determined 
to sail out of the harbor of.SyrHCUse ; but when everything was ready fur sailing, the tnoon was 
eclipsed, for it was then full moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with 
alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. 
This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation, 
that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have 
been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers 

the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also 

determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf P. V. $218). 

In a similar way, Ferguson, in his Astronomy, proposes to fix the time of llie birth of Christ. It is evident froni Matthew ij. 13- 
15, 20, 21, that Cluist was born only sonie months before tho death of Herod ; and from Josephus (B. xvii. ch. 8) we learn that there 
was an eclipse of ihe moon at the time of Herod's last sickness ; astronomical calculation shows that the eclipse occurred March 13, 
m Ihe year 4710 of Ihe Julian Period ; hence the birth of Christ could not have been later than about the close of the 4709th of the 
Julian Period. — The same author refers to the mention m;ide by Phlegon (cf. P. V. § 23S) of a most extraordinary eclipse of the sun 
as occurring; in the 4th year of Ihe 202d Olympiad, and would employ it as a help in deiermining the dale of Christ's death ; since no 
natural eclipse could occur the year specified, which corresponds, according to Ferguson, lo Ihe 4746lh of Ihe Julian Period, he thinks 

the event mentioned by Phlegon was Ihe supernatural darkness that market the Savior's crucifixion. In Playfair^s System of 

Chronology, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c), is a list of eclipses that were observed before the Christian era, also, in Ferguson''s Astronomy. 

Mere Lunar appearances may be employed in the same way. By comparing Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xviii. 28, 
ft would seem evident that Ihe crucifixion was on Friday, and at the time of the Passover; it is known from other sources (cf. Jose- 
phus, Ant. B. iii. ch 10) that Ihe Passover vi'as kept nn the day nf Ihe first full moon after the vernal equinox. Ferguson says he 
found by calculation that " ihe only Passover full moon that fell on Friday, for several 5'ears before or after the disputed year of the 
cr.icifixion, was on April 3d, in the 4746lh year of Ihe Julian Period." — Cf. Ferguson, as cited § 203. 

(b) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator 
crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same trom year to year ; but they move back- 
ward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree m 72 years. If, then, the 
place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine 
the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the ]ilace 
it then held, and allowing 72 years tor a degree. The only objection to this method is 
llie diffir-iilty. perhaps impossibility of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did 
occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history 

Sir 1. Newton applied this p'ri.nciple also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A 

sphere, representmt ..le heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient wmers to have been 

"ormed fur the Argonauts, by Chiron ; nn this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed ni 

ae middle point in the siyn Aries. In the year 1089, the equinox had gone back from that point 



p. I. EPOCHS AND ERAS. 05 

3fi degrees 44 minutes : this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years betw<^en 
the year 1689 and the Expedition ; niKi<iiig ii B. C. 'J55 ; nearly the same as tiy the calculatioi) 

from generations by the same anthor. If it he stated how a star rises or sets in relation lo the 

sun, the place of the equinox may be found, and dates nsct-rtained, in Uie way just mentioned. - 
rtir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to asiertain the time when ilfsiod lived. In 
a passage in the Wurks and Days [vs. 564], Hesiod says, thai Jirciums rose at sunset, 60 dnys 
after the sun entered the winter solstice, a (loint 90 degrees disianl from the equinox. — IJiit The 
place of the equinox cannot be settled with cerlainty in this way; because it cannot be cer- 
tainly known whether the- ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, whether he 
means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star he means exactly. Cf. Loi^lard, 
\f\ the Pliilosuphicul Tiuitsactiuns, vo\. x\vin p. 2. 

i 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins, medals, mG?iiime?its, and 
inscript ions , which are preserved for the benefi: of succeeding ages. '1 hese otien throw 
great liglit upon historical events, and afford importaiu aid in ascertaining ihe time of 
their occurrence. Interesiing facts are sometimes first made known, and the period 
when they took place is ofien indicated, by the lace of a medal, or the representations 
on a public monument, — Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most 
valuable of these we must mention the chronicle vf Paros, which fixes the date of the 
chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down lo the time of Alexander. (See 
P. IV. ^91.4.) 

§ 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who stare the 
distance between events, or between events and an epoch. '1 he early historians paid 
very little attention to the subject of chronology ; it was not un il a comparatively late 
period, that they began to think of dales and distances of time. '1 he principal frag- 
ments of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodoriis, and '1 hrasyllus, ate siill to be 
found in the Chronicon oi Eu^el/ius, and the !Stromula ot Clemens Alixa?idrinus. The 
writings of the Byzanti?ie Chroniclers are also of service; particularly the chronologi- 
cal work (EKXoyfi Xpovoypafjjiai) of Syncellus. It is chiefly jrom this and the above- 
mentioned work of Eusebius, that the details of the commonly receivtd Chronology liave 
been gathered. (Cf ^ 205; and P. V. ^ 236,. 239, 288.) 

% 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employtd in Chronology. — It is essential to correct and 
exact chronology that there should be some fixed epoch, to which all events may be 
referred and be measured by their distance Irom it. But it is of comparatively little 
consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and acknowledged, as it is perfectly 
easy to compute in a retrograde manner the lime before it, as well as in a direct man- 
ner the time after it. An epoch is disiinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of 
time which is taken as a starting-place from which to reckon, and taken usually be- 
cause signalized by some importani event. Era is the space of time, that follows the 
epoch ; tlie series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as 
nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. 

§ 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology. 
— ifl) Era of Olymqnads- The Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but after- 
wards reckoned by Olympiads, periods erf 4 years. They began 776 B. C. A new 
Olympiad era, however, came into use under the Roman emperors, beginning A. D, 
131. — (J)) Era of Rome. 'I he Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by the year 
of. the consul or the emperor. The building of the city was xhexr graiid epoch. This 
was 752 B. C. (It is placed by some 753 or 754.) — (c) Era of Naho7iassar (or Belesis). 
Used by some historiaiis ; the commencement of Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 747 
B. C. — (d) Era of the SeleucidcB. From the reign of Seleucus and his descendants in 
Syria. The Jews chiefly used this. The Nestorians still compute from it. (Rei?earches 
'of Smith and Divight, vol. ii- p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B. C. when Seleucus 
recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the kingdom of Syria. 
— (e) Era of Diocletian. This was founded on the persecution of Christians iti the 
reign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the Christian era was adopted. 
It began 284 A. D. — (/) The Alahomitan Era or Hegira; founded on the flight of 
Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. — {g) 'Vhe Persian Era, or Era of Vtzde- 
jerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. — (A) The 
CHRisTtAN Era ; Annus Domini; the yea'r of our Lord. This era is founded on 
the birth of Christ, but chronoiogers are. not agreed (ts to the year of his birih ; some 
placing it sven years before ihe received epoch, others four vears. This, however, is 
of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, because- all, who 
adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same numerical date ; all 
meaning ;o g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. The era began to be ufjcd 
about A. D. 360, according to some wriers; but others state tha* 'fwas invented by 
Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. 

On Ihe Christian Era, see .T. Priestley, f.ectiires on His'nry, L. xiv.— /. Guil. Jani, Histnpirt !Erx. Dionyianae — G. Hamliergo, Ue- 
Epochae Cliristianie ortu et auctore.— Ma^uie. Dissertation nn the Rirth of Christ.— Cf. Lard-ier, Credibility of the 3osi,el, &c. Part 
vol. ii {). 796.— Ar^Hson'i Astronomy, by /). Brewster, Phil. I SIT 2 vols. 8. i. 460-55. 

Perhaps we should mention here the Era oj the French Republic, whxh the revolutionists attempted to establisli. This was intro- 
duced ir. 1793, with a formal rejection of the Sabbath and of the hebdominal week, and la novel arrangement and pedantic nomeu- 
clature o( the months. The twenty-second of Septemlier was fixed as the besjinuing of the year. The year consisted of fwelvr 
months ol dirty days each ; which were divided, not by weeks, but into three decades, or periods of ten days. As this woulc* cooi 



06 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

or,«e but 360 i3ys,five were added at the clost of the last month of the ye:ir, called complementary days ; and at the dose of ever? 
founn or bissextile year, a sixth, called the day of the Republic. The cycle of the fiur years was termed the Fravciade. The 
lliree months of A u t u ni n were named yiiidtmiaire, Bnimatrc, Frimaire ; Ill0^e of Winter, Nivose, Pltiviuse, ytntose : ihnse 
')f Spring, Germinal, Florial, Prairial; those of Siiminer, Messidur, Thermidor, Fiuctidor. This infidel calendar was used 
ibout twelve years. The Grezorian was restored Januaiy I, IS06. 

•J) 204. (C) Systems of Arraugetnenl mid Chronological Tables. — There is a great 
discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have been advocated in 
diflerent nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations there was a strong 
desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronolo- 
gical dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptian? 
Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or 
ihousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed 
here. (Cf. P. IV. V21.) 

^ 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the 
other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of tne student's atten- 
tion. They differ froin each other considerably; that drawn from the Septuagint 
assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew ; 
6. g. ihe former places the flood soine hundred years further from the Christian era, 
and the Creation at least 600 years further froin the Flood, than the latter. There has 
been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two 
systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. 

'I'he system of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for chronolo- 
gical tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general 
accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the Arundehan Marbles, 
and the Chronicon of Eusebius. 

The system of Sir fsaac JVew'nn has already been menlinried. and sonrie of the methods em- 
ployed by him for fixinjj dates. Ttiis system Hssigns many important events, particularly of 
Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other sxstems. His chronology was at first 
received with some favor, but is not usually regarded, altliDiigh Mitfurd adopts it. 

On this, see Mitford's Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append. — Cf. Shvckfirrd's Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Pref. — For the titles of 
some of the most important helfis on ihe subject nf i.hronolnsy, see P. V. ) 7. 7 (c) ; ^299. 6. — For other?, we lefer to Hcniie's 
In'ro. to Crlt. Study of Holy Script, vol. ii. p. 730. — A labored defence of the Septuajint Chronology is made by Rev. J. J Jackson, 
i:i his Chronological Antiqtiilies. — See also Fred, Nolan, on the antiquity and coniiection of the early cycles, and their utility in 
settlinj the differences of chronologists, in Trans of Riyal Soc of Literature, vol. iii. Lond 1837. — Land. Qv.art. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. 
— .3. B. Chapin, Agreement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaildean Chronologies. New Haven, 1839. pp. 16. — Cf. Chrift. 
Sped. June, 1837, and Dec. 1838.— Mari^jam, as cited P. V. § 236. 

<^ 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and 
chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gra- 
dually and slowly by description ; the locality of events and dates on the paper also 
helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himsell 
of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is bet 
ter) by actually forming one himself. 

$ 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or less degrees 
of utility. — (d) One of the most simple ant! obvious plans i.-^ to form two perpendicular columns ; 
one for events of every kind ravifed promiscuoii.tly in order of occurrence : the other for their cor- 
responding dates. Sometimes a third column is added lo this plan, for Biography. — (6) Another 
plan of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular columns ; one for dates, 
and each of the others for a class of events: e. g. sovereigns in one, remarkable evenis in an- 
other, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of i:Fwrces/er\<? Charts. Both the plans men- 
tioned may he marked for centuries by horizontal lines. — (c) A Uiird plan is Ihe contrivance of a 
sort of tree, whose branches represent nations; and events are ranged in the'n according to 
their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of t^iidi/'s Chrotmlogy delineated. Con- 
quests by a nation mav, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one lirancli receiving others into 
itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from others. — ((Z) A fnurlh plan is 
marked by the peculiarity of btniig divided into periods, limited on each side by (irominent events. 
Such is Gni)(lrich''s Chart. — (f) ^. fifth plan, worthy of notice, is that devised by Einma tVillard, 
callnd " Perspective sketch of the course of Empire." It is essentially the Chronological 'I'ree 
inverted ; the earliest events being placed at the topof the chart, and diverging lines being sub- 
stituted itistead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to indicate the coin- 
(tarative rank and culture of different nations. (H'illard's Atlas. Ilariford, 1836.) 

But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults ; 1. equal length 
of time i.* not represented by equal spaces on the chart ; 2. duration is represented by perpendi- 
cular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most ntitural and mfist satisfactory repre- 
sentation. — (/) A sitih [)ian adopts thi'se two important itnprovements, with the division info 
periods, and the several ciiltimns for different classes of events, allowing,, where thi^ scale is 
iarg(> enough, each pvent to tte located in its exact place in the line of lime. The chief objection 
(0 this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to iticlude all the important 
events of sntue periods without incre;isitig too much the size of the chart, and retiderittg it iii- 
conveiiietit for portalile use —(/?■) A seoevth plan unites geography with the history and chrono- 
li>gy. This method is exhibited in Priestlei/s '•Specimen i>f a New Chart of History," given in 
his Lectures on History. — {h) The device of a combitiatioti of streams or rivers is employed in a 
rfcceiit chart ity /. /. /yi'r/(C(*c&,' called History made vi.<<ible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches by 27. 

S^ 20S. (D) Acfval Dates of the most prominent evenis. Nothing occasiotis more per 
jijexiiy and discouragetnent "to the s'udent in classical history, than the difficulty of re- 
neinhering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair 



p. I. BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHRONOLOGY. 07 

But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accuiate chronology is ess'jmial to the utility, 
and it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. And ilie difficulty complained 
of is by no means insuperable. 

Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented i,$210); but on the whole, 
(he vi-riter knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole lield of past time, 
select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, associate these event? witji 
their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making thorn as 
familiar as the letters of the alphabet. A?iy jterson of common capacity can do t/iis ; 
and the student who wishes to lay any foimdation at all for historical knowledge mwsl 
do at least as much as this. This being done, he..will find it comparatively easy to 
locate the various events, which he may read about or learn Irom time to time, in their 
proper place between these grand events whose dales are thus fixed in the niemorv. 

<5> 209. With these views the bllowing outline, in which it seemed desirable lo include 
modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. 

The learner is advised to draw it ofFnn a roll of paper prepared for the purpose; using a hori- 
zojual line to represent the flowing or progres.-; of time. I<et this line be divided into equal spaces, 
each representing an equal length of tiine; let the dates of ihe events he distincilx' written 
exHcUy at the points in the \\i\e icliere they belnyia- according lo this equal division ; and let the 
events also be written directly above or binder the dates. 

Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes the whole time before 
Christ, comprehending 4004 years. Modern includes the whole time since Christ. 

I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions bv the Flood :. Antediluvian ages, the 
portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood. — The Antediluvian 
ages may be considered as containing only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing ein-ht 
periods. The grand events and periods are the following. 

Of the Antediluvian ages. 

The one period is from Creation B. C. 4004, 

to Deluge B. C. 2318. 

Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 
Isf period, is from Deluge .... to Calling of Abrahai.i . . B. C. 1921 ; 
id period, from Calling of Abraham . . to Escape of Israelites . . .B.C. It92; 
3d period, from Escape of Israelites . . to Building of Temple . . . B.C. 1004;' 
4</; period, from Building of Temple . . to Foundi.vg of Rome . . .B.C. 7.'J2; 

5;A period, from Founding of Rome . . to Battle of Marathon . . B.C. 490; 
6f/( period, from Battle of Marathon • . to Reign of Alexander . . .B.C. 336; 
7/A period, from Reign of Alexander . , to Capture of Carthage . . B.C. 146; 
8;/t period, from Capture of Carthage . . to Coming of Christ. 

II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the Fall [f Rome and the 
Fall of Constantinople: Early Jiges, the portioti before the Fall of Rome ; Middit ^ges, the. por- 
tion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantiimple ; Recent Ages, the portion since 
the Fall of Constantinople — The early ages may be considered as containing f?i'o periods ; the 
middle ag€s,/ue periods; and the recent ages Jre periods. The grand events and periods are 
the following. 

Of the Early ages, the 
ist period, is from Christ . . . to the Reign of Constantine . 
2d period, from Reign of Constantine . to Fall of Ro.me 

Of the Middle ages, the 

l.st period, is from Fall of Rome . . .to Flight of Mahomet . 
2d pei-icd, from Flight of Mahomet . . to Crowning of Charlemagne 

3d T^eriod. from Crowning of Chail ?niigne . to Landing of William 
4^/i period, from Laiidin? of William . . to Overthrow of 8aracens . 

bth period, from Overthrow of Saracens . to Fall of Constantinople 

Of the Recent ages, the 
l.«rt period is from Fall of Constantinople to Abdication of Charles Fifth . A I). 1556- 

2d period, from Abdication of (^harh^s 5th to Restoration of Charles Second A. D. I6fiO; 

3d period, from Restoration of Charles 2(1 . to Indepkndence of Unitkd States A. D. 177ft; 
5/// pertad, from Independence of United States to Downfall of Bonaparte . A. D. 1815; 
bth period, from Downfall of Bonaparte to the Present Ti.me. 

$ 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, ahovj 
alluded to (J 208), which have b-^en devised to assist in the recollection of dates. ^Ve \\\H 
briefly notice three differeiu systems of artificial memory. 

1. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose JMnnoria Tfchvicn has gen«'rally met wiih the most 
favorable recpf)tion. "As !his me'hod." says Priestley, "is so easily learned and may be of 
Buch use in recollectins dates, I ll nik all pers ns of a liberal education inexcusable, who will 

8 



A. 


D. 


306; 


A. 


D. 


476. 


A. 


D. 


622; 


A. 


D 


800; 


A. 


D. 


1066; 


A. 


D. 


12.'5S; 


A. 


D. 


1453. 



68 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

not take the Btra'.l degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves master cf it."' The ex- 
pedient is to substitute letters for figures, and fdrin of these letters a syllable or word, and asso- 
ciate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose hirih, reign, death, or the like, you 
wish to remember, or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remem- 
bered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in wliich each of the ten numerical 
characAers ha.s its consonant aud \isv(iW! I or liiph hi) iin-; l,ab; 2, e d; 3, ti; 4,/ o; 5, I u; 6, s au ; 
7, p oi ; 8, k ei ; 9, n oit ; 0, z y. To remember the dale of tlie founding of Rome by this system, 
substitute for 7.52 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752; e. g. pu d, 
ind join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome, or a part of the word, thus Rnm-pud. The 
very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. To 
remember the date of the Deluge, 2348, we may form the word Del-ctcfc; of the battle of Mara- 
thon, 490, Ma rath -0717/, or Mara-fouz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be 
fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in 
Hexameter verses; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to me- 
mory, these are caWed memorial lines. 

See R. Grey's Memoria Technica, or Method of artificial Memory. (With Lowe's Mnemonics^ Lond. 1812. 8. Cf. Land. 
Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 

2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the sub.stitution of letters 
for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a 
room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects; and conceive these places as ar- 
ranged in a certain fixed order; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to 
remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concfrning them, in their proper order, into 
these conceived places. Such is the principle of Feinaigle's j9r( of Memory. By this a four- 
sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares ; these who wish a more capacious memory may 
take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one may gc 
on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. JVine squares are to be placed on the 
floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-jive; the other jive on 
the ceiling above: the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put 
on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left h;ind, and the next aine squares from 11 
to 19 are on the left hand wall under it; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall opposite in 
front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it ; the square 30, and the next 
nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand; and the square 40, and the next 
nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In 
each of these squares a [)icture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a pump; in 2, a swan ; 
in 3j a man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to be committed 
to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of Eng- 
land, he would create in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these 
pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate 
the picture pertaining to the king with the f)icture fixed in the square to which he hills ; in form- 
ing the new picture two things are important ; it should be so conceived as to have some casual 
or slight association suggesting the name of the kitig, and suggesting at the. same time a word or 
phrase; which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the 
date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of 
Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 /ie?js is a good one for the |)urpose; the square to 
which he is assigned is 29; the picture fixed in this square (in the engraved illustration of the 
system) is a woman spinning on a small wheel ; these two pictures then are to be' somehow bound 
together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning sees 7 hens; the next thing is to form a word 
or phrase indicative of the date; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, " The oaAraiZ" 
is such a phrase; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory, is to bind the 
phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the woman spinning sees 7 hens 
on The oak rail. — The following is the substitution alphabet ; 1, ftc; 2, d/.-, 3, g h ; 4,jkz; 5,1; 
0, 771 71 ; 7,yg; 8,rs; 9,tv; 0,wx; and 100, St ; 1,000, Th ; 100,000, Y. 

See The Ntw Art of Memory, founded on the principles of F e i n a i g 1 e, illustrated by engravings. Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. 
Lond, Quart. Rev. as above cited. 

It is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roinan orators, made use of a 
system of topical men)Ory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various parts 
of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of Feinaigle. 
The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being 
arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house; 'itliey assign," says he, 
" the first idea they wish to ren»ember to the portico, ihe second to the Irall ; then they go round 
the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associations to the bedrooms and anterooms, 
but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these associations, they recur mentally 
to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they had en- 
trusted to each particular spot, and this type at once suggests the idea connected with it." 

3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of 
letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere bar- 
barous and unmeaning words. like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image 
or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a siinificant sentence is formed, which states the event to be 
remembered, and concludes with a word or phrase that expresses something characteristic of 
the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes 
the date. The alphabet of Hailworth is the following; \,b c; 2, df; 3, g, h,gh ; 4,kl', 5, mn; 
fi, 7>, r ; 7,8 sh ; 8, t. ch ; 9, v w j, used as consonants ; 0, th ph wh, and alsoVy xy z. In forming 
words the vowels are used just as may be convenient, without having any sisnificancy ; the con- 
sonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thw^ church [c/t rcA] signifies 86S ; troop 
[t r p], 866. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is 
formed ; The deluge comes and v<en die guilty; the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the 

.consonants d g It represent 2348-— For greater convenience and scope in forming the character- 
istic phrases, the plan admits axiicles, prep"sitions, and cunjunctions to be used, like the vowels, 
without significancy ; e g. ^bel fell a sacrifice to Cain's hate and sin: h t s n, 3875. — Mr. Hall- 
wprth has taught his system by lectures in different parts of the country., and has published 
Mveral little books in which its principles are explained and applied. 

^f» T. Bed'H'vlVs Pfficaciou!. Method of acquiring, reraining, and communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge. 



p. I EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 69 

?J York, X^i.—HaUworMs method applied to General indent History,— Also to Sacred History, &c.— History of the I'tiJed 
Stata 

"5i 211. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events iii 
ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal states 
of ancient times. — We will mention first those whose capitals were in Asia. '1 he prin- 
cipal Asiatic states or kingdoms were eight ; the Assyriaii; the Jevmh; the Troja?i ; 
*he Lydian ; the Phoznician; the Persian ; the Syrian; and the Parthian. 



I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the building 
of Bahylon by Nimrod, B. C.2217. The 1st period of its history may be that from 
Nimrod to NiNiAS, B. C. 1945. 

In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the em- 
pire gained its greatest extent ; reaching on the east to the sources of the O.xus and the Indus, 
including Persia, Media, and Bactriana : comprising on the west Etiiiopia, Egypt, Syria, and 
Asia Minor to the Mediterranean ; and limited on the north oniy by Mount Caucasus, and on the 
south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the 
three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Raby- 
lon'm. 

The 2d period may be that from Ni?iias to Sardajvatalus, who died B. C. 747. 

This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are 
said 10 have reigned. — On the death of Sardanapalus three kingdoms were formed out of the em- 
pire; the Assyrian, with JVineveh as its capital ; the Babyloniav, with Babylon for its capital ; 
and the Median, with Ecbatana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the 
Assyrian monarchy as still continuing; and 

The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681. 

During this period of 66 years, 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whon\ Esarhaddnn was the last; 
and 10 kings reigned at liabylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately con- 
nected with that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the 
three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian. 

The 4th and last period extends from EsarhaddoJi to Cyrus tlie Great, B. C. 536. 

At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. — At the same time, also, Cyrus 
iinited to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the 
death of Sardanapalus. 

For a general view of the Assyrian history ; Rollings Ancient History, bk. lu.—Mitlot's Elements of History, vol. i. p. 62. (Ed. 
Edinb. 1823. 5 vols. 8.) — The English Universal History. Loud. 1779-S3. 50 vols. 8. (IS vols. Mncient.) vol. in.—Prideaux, 
Connection of the 0. and N. Testament, (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.) — Berosus, &c. in Cory, cited P V. § 236.— 
rieeren, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, &c. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

J'ransl. from his Ideen, cited P. IV. § lll.—Sainte Croix, La ruine de Babylon, in the Metn. Acad, hiscr. vol. xlviii. p. I. For 

Assyria, and likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Heeren''s States of Antiquity, cited § 215. 6, 
^Cf. also Meusel, cited P. V. § 240. 



II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B. C. 1921. 
It may be divided into eight periods. I'he 1st period extends from Abraham to the 
entrance into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451. 

During this period they remained a nomadic nation. 

The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B. C. 1060 

During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuei 
was the last of the judges. Saul, the first kin^, was anointed as such some time before Samuel's 
,death. 

The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms 
of Judah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. 

This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of David 
and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital.— Respecting these 
reigns, see Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 528. 

The 4th period may include the history from the Eevolt until the Restoration from 
the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. 

The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten 
tribes of /sraei, whose capital was Samaria, werp carried into captivity by Shalmanazar, B. C. 721; 
the two tribes of .hid ah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C.6!)6. During this time nineteen kings reigned 
over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of 
Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. 

The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of the 
Jews to Alexander, B. C. 332. 

During this period the .Tews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on thr 
throne of Persia. 

The 6th period is from Alexaytder to the Re-establtshment of an Independent 
monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 168. 

After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews wer« 
claimed bj Syria and by Egypt, an' exposed to the invasion or oppression of both.— The pernr 



70 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

eution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the re-establishnieni of 
^independence. 

The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman inlerfereiice under 
POMJ'EY, B. C. 63. 
During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. 

The 8th and last period is from the first conquests o{ Fompey to the final Destruc- 
tloN o^ Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 

For the Jewish history ; The historical books of the 0. Te.-tanient. — Josephus (cf. P. V. § 24?.). — Berniyer, Histoire du peuple 1« 
Dieu, &c. Par. 1742. 10 vols. S.—Banmge, Hisloire des Juifs, kc. Haye, 1716. 15 vols. 12. — Prideaux, Connect, r*" the 0. and 
N. Teslanie'nt. The French translation, said to be better than the English original, is entitled flisloiie des Juifs et ies peujiles 
voisins depuis la decadence des Royaunies d'lsrael et do Juda, &c Aitist. 1725. 5 vols. 8.—./. L. Bauer, Handbuch der Geschichte 
der Hebr. Nation, ^.c. NUrnb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable.— W. H Mdman, History of the Jews, (Am. ed.) N. Y. 1830. 3 (ols. 18. 
Cf. N(jrth Jlmer. Rsv. vol. xxiii. p. 234. — Jahn, Hebrew Co'ninionwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E Stowe. AuJ. 1828. 8. 



TIL The Trojan Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as 
early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say that the state was 
destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. 

The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. II. $ 132. — Milford's 
Greece, ch. i. 



IV. TheLydian. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties of kings 
are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of Ck(esus ; 
and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. C; 536. 

The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful; its 
fate was decided by the battle uf Thymbra. 

For the Lydian history ; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited. — Freret, on the battle of Thymbra, with a plate, 
in the Mem. de Vjlcad. des Inter, vol. vi. p. 532. 



V. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king 
named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of Tyre by Alex- 
ander, B. C. 332. 

Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities 
with petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. 

On the Phoenician history ; Sancmiiathon, Sac. cf. P. V. § 238. — R-es, Cyclopaedia, under Phcenice, — Mignot, Sur les Phenicions 
(several dissertations), in the Mem Acad. Inser, vols, xxxiv-xlii. — The English Univ Hist. — Also, lllh vol. of Heereii's Works. 
Gott 1824. 



VI The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant until the time 
of Cyrus the elder, B. C. 536. We may include the whole history after this date in 
two, periods. 

I'he 1st period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Cfreece, and was de- 
feated in the famous Battle of Salami s, B. C. 480. 

In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xer.xes, the Persian empire attained its 
greatest extent; reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Ja.xartes and Mount Caucasus on the 
north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya The capitals were Babylon, Siisa, 
Ecbatana, and Persepolis (cf. $$ 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes in one and 
sometimes another of these places. 

The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alex- 
ander, in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. 

About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the yovnger Cyrus, described in the 
^vabasis of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cimaxa, B. C.401.— Alexander completed the 
§ubjugation of Persia by the victory at .^rbela, B. C. 331. 

For the Persian history ; Rolling Anc Hist. hk. iv. and follmviiii; — MilloCs Elements, vol. 1. p. 88, ed. before c:t»d.— The Uni' 
versal History, before cited, vol. iv. and ix. — Brissonius, de regno Persarum. 1591. 8. — Hyde, Rhode, ^c. cited P. V. § 183. 3. — 
HerderU Persepolis, in his IVurhs —Heeren, as above cited.— Grotef end, &c. cited P. IV. § 18. 4.— X B. Frazer, Hist, of Persia, is 
Harper's Fani. Library, No. Ixx.— Sir /. Malcolm, Hist, of Persia from the earliest period &c Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 2d ed. 



VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of (he Seleucidce. This was one of the four 
monarchies formed out of the empire o{' Alexander. It was commenced alter tho 
battle of fystis, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its history in two 
periods. 

The 1st peilod is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans 
in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190. 

The capital of this kingdom v\(hs Antiocli. The territory under its sway included the northern 
part of Syria; all Asia Miripr, except Bithynia ; Armenia,' Media, Parthia, Bactriana, India, Per- 
sia, and the valley of the Euphrates. — Antiochus was brought into a war wiih the Romans espe- 
ciallv by protectirig Hannibal. His defe-at, in tlte batile uf Magnesia., B.C. 190, deprived him of 
r-»ar» of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom. 



p. I. TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGVPT AlfD CARTHAGE. 71 

The 2d period extends from Ajitiochus the Great to the ".omplete conquest of Syria 
by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiaticus, B. C. 69. 

In the tirst part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews um^er the Maccabees, B. C. 168, 
in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. — The thvone of this kingdom, on its 
overthrow by the Romans, had been held by twenly-three successive liings, most of iheni lawful 
heirs of the house of the Seleucidae. 

For the Syrian history ; VaUlant, Imperiuni Seleucidarum, cited P. IV. § 93. I. — FrSlich, Annales rerum Syriae. Vieon. 1754.— 
The Univertal Uisi. above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient. 



VIII. The Parthian; or Kingdom of the Arsacidce. The Parthians occupying 
the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when con- 
quered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucus 
Nicator. But under the third king of Syria they revolted and established an independ- 
ent kingdom under Arsaces, B. C. 256. 

The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans; 
but could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian Ocean, and 
from Syria to the river Indus; including Bactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of the 
Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hecatompylos. 

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who dethroned the 
Arsacidae, and established the kingdom o/" Modern Persia, A. D. 223. 

For the Parthian history ; VaUlant, as cited P. IV. § 93. — C. F. Richter, Historisch.kritischer Versuch (Iber die Arsaciden-und. 
SiassanideD-Dynastie, &c. Lpz. 1804. 

^ 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we 
have but two of importance ; the Egyptian, and the Carthaginian. 

I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the FJgyptian dynasty is Menes, 
generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and grandson of Noah ; 
he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt 
commences. 

A high antiquity, in part surely fabulous, was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian 
works now lost; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus (cf. $ 201); the other, the work 
ofManetho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. V. $ 236). 

The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to the 
Escape of the Israelites, B. C. 1492. 

Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can 
be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. • Some chronologers 
place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period; some consider him to be the Pharaoh 
that was drowned in the Red Sea. 

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammeticus, B. C. 
670, when the history begins to be autheniic. 

No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted 
for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures. — Twelve ditfereiit governni'-nts under 
twelve difTereiit chiefs, are said to have been united under Psammeticus. 

The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt by 
the Persian king Cambvses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C. 525. 

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authoritj 
The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common. 

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Camhyses to the conquest of Egypt 
'by Alexander, B. C. 332. 

After the time of Camhyses, Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exceptioi. 
of a few iiistames of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con- 
tinued subject to Persia until it now changed masters. 

The 5ih period is from Alexander to the subjection of thecountry to the Romans, 
resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt ; and Ptolemy, after the 
death of Alexander, became king of the country, H. C .'<'2.3, and commenced the dvTiasiy of the 
Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associatitig her fortunes with Antony, los* 
it by the success of her lover's rival. — Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in tiie f)reviona 
periods. In this, Alexandria, fotinded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court. — 
Egypt remained a part of the Roman empire until it was wrested away by the Saracens. 
A. D. 640. 

For (lie Fcvptiai) luslory ; Rutli,,''s Anc Hist. \M. i. — Marsham. as cileil P. V. )fl36.—Chaiiip'llirm le j.une. 1,'E^yple som 
les Phiraoris kc. Par. Ixl4. 2 vols. 8. ({dt period before Caiiib>se>.) — For Ibe period after Alexander, l^aillanl. Hislciria Plole 

nia;oruiii, cited P IV. ^93. l.—Champolliuii F'^cac, Ani:alcs des Ijigides, &c. Par. 18:9 2 vols. 8. Cf. MauotU Universal 

History, vt.l. i (erl. N. V. IS04. 25 vols 12.)— Also, Ibe Universal History before cited, vol. i. and viii.— .V. Russcl, View of E^ypt 

-Cf. § 177, also P. IV. 5 16 ; § 91. 8 ; § 231. 

II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally diWded 
into A/cee periods. 



72 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

The l&t period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880. to the beginning of the 
v>ars of Syracuse in the time of I he Syracusan king Gelon, B.C. 480. 

In this period the following points are worthy of notice : (a) the origin of the city Carthage^ by 
a Tyrian coiony under Dido, in wiinse story much fahle is mingled : (b) the purpnits of the people , 
commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had inlercourse by sea with Britain and Gtjinea, 
oy caravans with the interior of Africa, and throuah Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) iheii 
covqiiesis ; their (;oinmercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the 
Mediierranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, tiie Baleares, also the Canary Isles anft 
Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in S[)ain, and the northern coast of Africa; the chief 
con(iuests were effected by JlJatro, and his sons and grandsons; (d) the form of guvervment ; it 
was a republic, but of a strongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief 
magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an 
Jtssfmbly of the peo[ile ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an 
aristocratic [larty ; (e) the revenue; its sources were, 1. tributes from the subject cities and 
states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds of the mines 
in Spain. 

'i'he 2(1 period extends from tlie beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse to the 
beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, B. C^ 264. 

The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to 
obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in 
almost constant wars. 

The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruction of 
Carthage, B. C. 146. 

The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both 
desired to own, furnished the occasion. — There were three wars called Panic ,' each disastrous 
to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and 
splendid victories of Hannibal; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third !ast«d only 
about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Cartilage had 
existed about 700 years. 

For the Carthaginian history; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. Vu—Hendrich, De Republics Carlhaginiensium. 1664.— Heercjl, as cited 
ibove —The Uriiverml History, vol. xv. of the Ancient.— Bdtliga-^s Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. 



^ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned. 
Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will oe ac- 
compUshed by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome. 

I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years, 
from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. 
This whole s^pace may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into 
six successive periods., each limited by distinguished events, and characterized by pro- 
minent circumstances.- 

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civilization to 
the Trojan War, 1184 B. C, and from its peculiar characteristic may be denomi- 
nated fabulous. 

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ; 
yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its 
first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the founda- 
tions of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Lit- 
tle advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, 
other colonies were planted, at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, ai)out 
the time of Moses (P. IV. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable 
progress must have been made in cultivation. 

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period; 
particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four 
sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic 
Council. — 'The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had 
been mtroduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was suflJiciently studied to enable Chiron to 
furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibitinff the constellations. The ac- 
counts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in 
the various arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that 
singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous 
adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan 
t/oar to the time when the regal form of government was abolished, about 1050 
■B. C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the 
period of colonization. 

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such 
without encountering peculiar difliculties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this 
we find the country .nvolved in fatal civil wars, n which the people, under a number 



P I STATES OF EITROPE. GREECE. 73 

of potty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and opprcs- 
eion. These evils seem to have led to the change in the torm of Government, and the 
substitution of the popular instead of the rigal system. '1 he same evils also probably 
contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The 
emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as o\ three separate classes. 
The earliest were the ^olians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north- 
western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the 
principaL The second were the Ionian?, who went from Attica (originally called 
Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the jEolians, where Ephesus 
was one of their chief cities. The third were the I)oria?is, who migrated to Iialy and 
Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the 
most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four princi- 
pal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf P. V. <> 4.) 

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the 
abolition of monarchy to the BEG1N^^IN& of the Persian War, about 500 B. C. 

In this period tw^o of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta; 
and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable 
pohtical constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as 
the period of laws. 

Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to 
her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years 
later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the 
task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. § 167; P. III. §§ 8, 9.) — The 
other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta 
with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of 
his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suf- 
fered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian 
general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame 
poet of Athens, Tyrtaeus. (Cf P. V. ^ 53.) 

In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal 
authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to pro- 
mote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was assassinated at a public 
festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge 
by instigating the Persians to invade his native country. 

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persiax War, 
160 B. C, a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked 
back whh pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite 
examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest 
energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may 
properly be called the period of military glory. 

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian 
king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occa- 
sion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, 
the capital of Lydia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three suc- 
'cessive kings. Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer 
any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Mycaie, and Plata^a, 
secured immortal honor to the Greeks.— A succession of splendid iiames adorns the 
history of Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and 
Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried 
in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period 
of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the 
Greeks. Before it, thet. existed little union comparatively between the different 
states, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of 
Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were arotised to effort agairst the 
common enemy. In the confederation which followed. Sparta %vas the norr.inal head, 
but the talents, wdiich ac.ually controlled the public affairs, were found in he stales- 
men of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily tran.-ferred, 
and before the close of the war she stood, as it w^ere, the mistress of Greece. 

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian mar to the 
Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affair? 
of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth 
and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — But a spirit of luxurious refine- 
ment soon took the place of the disinteres'ed patriotism of the preceding age, and fhr 



*l CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGf. 

manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This 
may be designated as the period of luxury. 

The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One ol 
these is the protracted war between Athens and iSparta, termed the Felopon^iesiun. 
Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon lell a vic.im to the terrible 
plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suc- 
cessively gained the predominant influence. '1 he war was continued with shght in- 
termissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle 
of iElgos Potamos, B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained 
a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in 
Greece, and was deprived even of her own hberties. Her walls were thrown down, 
and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. 'I'o this, however, the 
Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled. 

The same year was remarkable for two other events. The lu'st was the accusation 
of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial 
tor some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to 
the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V. § 171). The other memorable event was the 
expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of 
Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from 
Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 
10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simpli- 
city. — The assistance which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them 
in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, 
gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, 
Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even 
united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the 
Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This 
war was terminated by a treaty, B.C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, 
and was ahke dishonorable to all the Greeks. 

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, 
were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the as- 
cendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two 
distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — But a war with Sparta shortly 
consummated her glory and exhausted her strength ; she gained a brilhant victory in 
the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C, but was in the same instant ruined by the 
death of her general Epaminondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states, 
Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, 
reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, 
already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian 
states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B C. 357. (Cf. P. III. ^ 72.) This 
commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans 
and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly 
after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in 
which the council of Amphictyons appointed Philip, king of Macedon, as general and 
leader of their confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized 
a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of 
Demosthenes was lifted to v/arn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse 
them to united resistance. A feeble aUiance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. 
The battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece. 

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of 
Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chae- 
ronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent his- 
tory exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent 
orovince. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fall. 

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and aiitocrat of 
Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. 
Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march 
from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of 
Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus; but every reader will regret his follies at Per- 
sepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years 
after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels 
4mong his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests weve 
terminated, and the empire vv,as then divided \n\o four kingdoms, one comprising Ma- 
cedonia and Greece; a second Thrace and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, 
Palestine, anc Cq^losyria ;'and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, includ\ng all tht 
r«3st of Asia, even to the Indus. • 

1 o the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to 



p. I, STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 75 

arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousy between the 
states and the universal corrupt on of morals rendered their exertions fruitless- All 
that is really honorable and memorable in the proper affairs ot the Greeks at this 
period, is found in the history oi the Achaean league. — 'I'he Achaean league was origi- 
nally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, established very early, 
when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took 
scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was4ieutrai 
even in the Peloponnesian war. 

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B.C. Subse- 
quently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presi- 
dency of Philopcemen, B.C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that 
its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the oilier states at 
this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece 
might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by 
one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced 
the opportunity, and shortly alter this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his 
triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C. • 

Kothing but the Achjean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an in- 
stant prey to Roman ambition. 'J'he remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this 
destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult 
upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was 
taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed to the flames and consumed to 
ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a 
province of Borne. 

The principal helps in the study of the Grecian history are mentioned, P. V. § 7. 7. (d). — A good elementary work is Pinnoek'i 
imprnved edition of G o! d s ni i th's History of Greece. &.C. philad. 1^36. 12.— A valuable lex'-book and guide to deepei research ; 
j1. H. L. Heereii, States of Autiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1S2S. 8. — For the later periods of Gre- 
cian history ; J Gast, Hist, of Greece from accession of Ale.-ander till the final subjection to the Romans. Loud. 17Si. 4. — Bititet' 
bauch, Geschicbte der Achler und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 1782. 



§ 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 
years; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 

1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, to 

llie Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be called th.- Period of the Kings, or 

of Eegnl Power. 

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning with 
the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from 
^Eneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman 
history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether 
fabulous. (P. V. § b\0.)— Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. §*i 193, 240). 
One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution 
effected by the sixth king, Servius TuUiiis, introducing the Comiiia Centuriata. He 
divided the citizens into cFasses, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a 
much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. 111. '^ 252.) 
— The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on 
the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several 
classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was 
of very limited extent, and the people v/ere often involved in war with the several 
states in their immediate v cinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged ih 
the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed 
the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and 
the overthrow of the regal government. 

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the Ple 
BEiANS were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning ol 
this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had bo- 
come a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as th« 
period of the rieheian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. 

Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised alin«x<?l 
precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or com- 
mon people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants from the Senators or 
Patres. — The first step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, 
which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgracefiil punishment to appeal from fho 
magisjtrate to the people. Under the protection of this law. the people, discontented 
with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in Mie levies, 
which the wars with the neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patri- 
cians to invent a new ofHce ; that of Dictator (P. III. ^ 248). But the dissatisfaction 



76 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

of the Plebeians was not to be thus removed. They united with the army and with- 
drew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating the office of 
Tribunes, who were to be chosen annually from the Plebeians, and to possess the power 
of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and even the Senate. (P. III. § 245.) — 
This arrangement only led to new dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their 
object to oppose the Consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually en- 
croaching upon the Patrician. — In a few years another fundamental change was effecred. 
The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius TuUius, been 
transacted at the Comitia Ceiitnriata, or assemblies voting by cenluries. It was now, 
B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in the ComUia Tributa, or 
assembhes voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians held the control. 

The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy between 
the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring it. This was the 
Decemvirate, B. C. 451, which superseded both consuls and tribunes, but continued 
only three years, and then the two other offices were restored. — In a few years the 
people made another advance, the Senate conceding, that six military tribunes, three 
Patrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — Another 
office was created during this period, the censorship; two Censors being appointed to 
take the census of the people every five years, and to watch over the public morals. — 
But this office does not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had it 
any influence in healing the dissensions between the higher and lower orders (cf. 
P. III. § 247) . 

One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccompUshed. They were 
not ehgible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove this disability 
they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many years, and occa- 
sioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in their complete success; as they 
gained admission to the consulship, the censorship, and finally to the priesthood, and 
thus obtained a virtual equality with the Patricians about B. C. 300. 

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in fre- 
quent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the Etrurians, 
under king Porsenna, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, " a war fertile in exploits 
of romantic heroism." — The second was with the city Veii, a proud rival of Rome. It 
was at last taken by Camillus, B. C. 390, after a siege of ten years.— The last was 
with the Gauls, who invaded Italy under Brennus, and are said to have taken Rome 
and burned it to the ground, B. C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the cla- 
mors of the populace to go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy 
flight the barbarian conquerors. 

3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph oj th^ Ple- 
beians to the Capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. 

Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and had 
extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The admission of Ple- 
beians to all the high oflfices of trust and distinction promoted the consolidation and 
strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon commenced. This may 
be remembered as the period of the Punic Wars, or of Foreign Conquests. 

The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which resuhed 
from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian colonies 
(§ 50), and contained at this time several cities, flourishing, wealthy, and refined by 
letters and the arts. On their invitation Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, passed over 
from Greece with a large army and a train of elephants to aid them against the Ro- 
mans, and was for a time successful, but finally, being totally defeated at the battle 
of Beneventum, B. C. 274, fled precipitately to his own dominions. The allied states 
and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy. 

She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily became an 
abject of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into contact with Carthage, 
which was now flourishing and powerful. The Carthaginians had settlements in 
Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the dominion of the whole island. Hence 
sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. Sicily was chiefly settled by Greek colo- 
nies. These colonies preferred independence, but, situated between Rome on one 
side and Carthage on the other, were in iio condition to resist both, and had only the 
alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in 
the first Punic war, which began B. C. 2fi4, asd was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty 
exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra- 
cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government. — The 
tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Punic war. 

After a peace of twenty-t4iree years, the second Punic war began in the siege of 
^aguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city, Hannibal 
,;ro<!s<^d the Pyrenees and 'he Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a victorious 



p. I. STATES OF EITROPE. ROME 77 

army. The Romans were defeated in three engagements before the memorable 
battle of CannaB, in which they were completely conquered, and 40.000 of their troops* 
left dead on the field. But alter the battle of Cannje the Carthaginians gained no ad 
vantages. A king of Macedon came to their aid in vain. — Scipio, a Roman general, 
having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls 
of Carthage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly 
defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second Punic war 
ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war Syracuse in Sicily took part 
with the Carthaginians, and was on that account besieged by the Romans. It was 
ably defended by the scientific genius of Archimefles, but at length taken by Marcel- 
lus, and made a part of the province of Sicily, B. C. 212. 

The result of the second Punic war may be considered as the occasion which car- 
ried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the pro- 
tection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which compelled the king to 
cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. — The interference 
of the king of Macedon in the second Punic war also furnished the ground for a war 
with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of Greece. A few years 
after,the Romans-, on the pretence of aiding the ^tolians, subjected Macedonia, B. C. 
167. The Achaean league preserved the southern portions of the country a little 
longer; but in twenty years these hkewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the 
capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. 

Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged a third Punic 
war, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate struggle with 
the Numidians. The third Punic war continued but about three years, and termi- 
nated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under circumstances of aggravated cruelty 
and faithlessness on the part of the Romans. 

4. The fourth period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth to tlie 
establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 
During this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic disturb- 
ances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the Civil Wars. 

The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances which grew 
out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to check the 
growing corruption of the Senate, and to reheve the circumstances of the people ; but 
both fell victmis to their o\yi zeal and the hatred of their enemies, Tiberius 13b, and 
Caius 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ardent patriotism; others to 
mere ambition. (Cf. Niehuhr's Rome, cited P. V. ^ 299. 7.) Not long after the fall of 
Gracchus arose the Social war, by which the states of Italy demanded and obtained 
of Rome the rights of citizenship- B.C. 90. — Scarcely was this ended, when the Ro- 
mans began again to imbrue their hands in each other's blood in the fierce war of 
Sylla and Marius, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized 
this contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet re- 
signed his power at the end of four years, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is soon foj 
lowed bv the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of 
Cicero, B. C. 62. 

Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first trium 
virate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, repressed the 
flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added Syria to the Roman 
possessions : Coesar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer 
Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond which held Caesar and 
Pompey together, and they hastened to. determine in the field of battle who should be 
master of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly, 
by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to -Egypt, but was beheaded 
the instant he landed on the shore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at 
Rome, but was assassinated in the senate, by a company of conspirators headed by 
Brutus and Cassius. B.C. 43. 

A second triumvirate was now formed, on the pretext of avenging this murder, be 
tween Antony, Lepidus. and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of Caesar. A horrid 
proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the party of the conspirators 
necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42, put an end to the hopes of 
Brutus and Cassius. at the bead of this party. Octavius, who was the nephew of 
Caesar, easily effected the removal of one member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of 
feeble talents and insignificant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by 
love for Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the 
fate of battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The armament of 
Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius at Actium, B. C. 31. Thia 
battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her possessions, to the powei 
of Octavius, by whom the imperial government was finally estabhshed. 



78 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, presents bu 
a melanclioly picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy, and civil war. 

5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the Imperial 
Gcvernvtent to the reign of Cojvstantine, A. D. 306. As Christianity was introduced 
into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman govern- 
ment, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan Emperors. 

The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become 
proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature, and the arts. It is distinguished, 
also, for the birth of our Savior; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his cruci 
fixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Caligula, Clau« 
dius, and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny oi the emperors, and the profli- 
gacy of their families and favorites. 

On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed, in which 
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, successively gained the empire and lost their lives.— 'The 
Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, 'I'itus and Domitian, next in order receive 
the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the final conqueror of the .Tews, whose 
obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the 
predictions of Christ. His reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which 
buried the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the 
family, provokes his own assassination, A. D. ^'o. 

Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian, 
we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Antonines, extending 
from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years. Their reigns appear in the midsi 
of the general sterility and desolation of the imperial history like the verdant oasis in 
the desert. Literature and the arts of peace revived under their benign" influence. 

After the death of Marcus, A, D. 180, there follows a whole century of disorder, 
profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the absolute disposal of 
the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within 
the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are successively proclaimed, and 
deposed or murdered. — In the year 284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted 
a new system of administration. The empire was divided into four departments or 
provinces, and three princes were associated with him, in the government. T'his sys- 
tem only laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a few 
years Maxentius and Constantino, sons of two of the princes associated with Diocletian, 
appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective cloims to the imperial purple. 
The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne. 

This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors, 
those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecution and suffering. 
Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the first under Nero, A. D. b-t 
and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D. 303, and continuing ten years, untc 
A. D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress of the 
gospel, it was spread during this period throughout the whole Roman Empire. 

6, The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending from the 
reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the Heruli, A. D. 476. 
The reign of Constantme the Great imparts splendor to the commencement of this 
period. He embraced the Christian faith himself, and patronized it in the empire, as 
did also most of his successors; on which account this may be called the period of the 
Christian Emperors. 

One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great influence 
on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Government to a new seat. 
He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed with his court, giving it the 
name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three 
sons and two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 
360. By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he 
was already on his march from Gaul to seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the 
Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian 
religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the I'emple of Jerusalem, with the ex- 
press purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible. 

From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. D. 
379 the his'ory presents little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies 
betvveen the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew out of the re- 
nwval of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled 
o-'er both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius separately the 
east and the west. — From ^his time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and its liis- 
♦orv no longe"* belongs to that of Rome. 



P, I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 7() 

The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are scarcely 
able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian invaders. At length, 
under Augusiukis, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoacer, leader of 
the Heruh, and the history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476. 

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the continuec 
inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the greatest annoyance 
was suffered in the latter part of the lime, from three tiibes, under three celebrated 
leaders; the Goths, under Alaric; the Vandals, under Genseric; and the Huns, 
under Attila ; the two former of which actually carried their victorious arms to Rome 
itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate at their fieet the haughty mistress of the 
world ; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by igno 
ble concessions and immense gifts. 

§ 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also the Greek 
Empire, was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of almost 1000 years after the 
overthrow of the Western. After the fall of Rome nearlv sixty different emperors had 
occupied the throne at Constantinople, when, A. D. 1202, that city was taken by the 
crusaders from France and Venice. By this event the Greek emperors were forced to 
establish their court at Nicjea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their 
former capital was recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held 
the sceptre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent, 
until It consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was prolonged to A. D. 
1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained it to 
the present day. 

For the principal works on the Rr)man history, see P. V. § 299. 7. — We mention here as valuable, Mex. Fraser TyilerU UniverMl 
History. Bost. 1835. 2 vols. 8. — The student in ancient history will derive advantage also from B i g 1 a n d's Letters en the Stud§ 
anJUtt of History, and Priestley''t Lectures on Histury ; also, fllJA't Propldeutik des historiscben Studiums. Berl. 1811. 8. 



IX a. 




i-r: 



80 



PART 11. 



MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, 



PLATE X . 




GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



Introduction, 



§ 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writing had coint 
into general use, tradition was the only mode of preserving and spreading the 
Knowledge of remarkable events. Many circumstances contributed to give tc; 
early traditions a fabulous character. The love of the marvellous, a natural 
tendency of the mind to employ symbolical and allegorical images to express 
ideas for which no definite jvords have been appropriated, and a disposition to 
eulogize and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all conspired to load history 
and fact with a mass of fiction, so that it became impossible for later inquirers 
to distinguish accurately between the true and false. 

§ 2. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authentic history 
by the name o^ myfhi (^ur^ot), and they termed their contents or the matter of 
them, as well as the knowledge or study of them, mythology {ixv^oXoyia) . 
My.thology, however, was not with them, as in modern times, a distinct branch 
of study. The term is now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge 
which considers the notions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and 
Romans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their actions, 
names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical representations. It is often 
employed also in a wider sense, including the religious fables of all ages and 
nations, and thus is made synonymous with the history affable. 

§ 3. It is important to distinguish the point x»f view in which these mytholo 
logical narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from that in which we are 
to regard them. To the former they were closely connected with their national 
history and their religious faith, were indeed parts of them ; to us they are only 
monuments and evidences of the state of culture of the hun.an mind, if we view 
them philosophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of 
men guided by sense and imagination, affected much by external appearances, 
and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary powers. But they 
afford much valuable and even necessary aid in understanding the Greek and 
Roman authors, especially the poets, and in judging of ancient opinions, usages, 
and art. 

§ 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many centuries, 
were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various ciianges in respect to 
their general dress, aim, and application. Originally they consisted in part of 
actual occurrences, in part of arbitrary fiction, springing from fear, reveren.e. 
gratitude, patriotism, credulity and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cun 
ning, and ambition. They were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin, but 
more frequently were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers and other- 
wise. By the poets they were woven into epic song ; by early philosophers 
they were clothed in mystery and allegory ; and by the later interpreted in 
divers conflicting ways ; while artists found in them an ample range of subjects 
for the chisel and the pencil. 

§ 5. Some of the modern writers on Greek and Roman mythology hr-.ve 
merely stated the fables as reported among the ancients. Others have, in add 
lion, sought to trace them to their origin, either by making conjectures of alle- 
gorical, historical, and physical meanings in the stories, or deducing them from 
the events of early ages recorded in the Bible. But as these traditions arose 
in various ways, and often accidentally, there will of course be error in every 
system which attempts to refer them all to one ccwmon source and purpose. 
9 83 



84 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

<?> 5u. The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid in the idea, 
which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the first ages, conversant only 
v/ith objects of sense ; viz, that every thing in nature was endued wiih an appropriate 
activity and spontaneity like that in man. In con=:equence of this idea, wherever an 
unusual appearance or agency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being or 
existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of personal existences out 
of natural phenomena, this personification of physical objects and events was, in all 
probability, one of the most prolific sources of table and of idolatry; for which ihe stars 
and the elements seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. 

Many of the pagan stories are Ingeniously solved by referring their origin to synfibnlical or allegorical descriptions of physical priu' 
■siples and changes. Cf. P. IV. § 41.— On the rise of idolatry, we refer to FaUr, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. Lond. 1816. 3 toIs. 4. 
Cf. also SImckfurd, Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. v.—£anier, cited ^ 12. 2. (a).— See references, P. V. § 364, 3. 

The following remarks, on the sources of fable, are frorn the Traite des Etudes nf Rollin. They 
were translated by Mr. WeUivgton H. Tyler, who has consented to their insertion here. 

1. ^'■One source of Fable is the ■perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred History 5 
and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of Noah, perfectly 
instructed bv him in religious matters, preserved for considerable time the worship of 
the true God in all its purity. But when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower 
of Babel, the members of this family were separated and scattered over different 
countries, diversity of language and abode was soon followed by a change of worship. 
Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, 
subject to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed oy the use of 
writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured by an infinite number of fables, 
the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the more ancient had en- 
veloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved 
among all nations; not, indeed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces 
of truth, marked and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had a 
common origin. Hence the notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, all- 
powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of 
external worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and 
general assent to certain great facts •, the creation of man by an immediate exertion of 
Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as the golden age, in 
which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of his brow or cultivated by 
painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abundance ; the fall of the same man, 
the source of all his woe, followed by a deluge of crime, which bro ignt on one of 
water; the human race saved by an ark, which rested upon a mountain; and after- 
wards the propagation of the human race from one man and his three sons. — But the 
detail of particular actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was 
soon altered by the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the 
family of Noah itself The historical fact that he was the father of- three sons, and 
that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the 
earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose three sons, if we may believe the 
poets, shared between them the empire of the world." 

On several of Ihe points above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coinr.df iiCK. with facts in sacred history 
These are pointed out by several writers; we mention particularly Grotius, De veritate Rel. Chr.st (L i. c. 17.) — De Lavaur, Hia 
foire de la Fable conferee avec I'Histoire Sainte. Amst. 1731. — Faber, Horas Mosaicae. — Collyer, f ectures on Scripture Facts. 2d ed 
Lend. \it09.—Stillineflee:''s Origines Sacrae.— Cf. Manna, History of Hindostan. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. (bk. i.) 

2. " A second source of Fable was fiirnished by the miniatru of a7igels in human 
affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, his inteUigence and his 
immortality ; and he was farther desirous of associating them with his providence in 
the government of the world, as wgU in the departments of nature and the elements, 
as in reference to the conduct of men. 'i'he Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed 
with their glittering swords, ravage all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an 
innumerable multitude of people, and entirely extirpate the army of an impious prince. 
Mention is m.ade of an angel, the prince and protector of the Persian empire; of 

• another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the 
people of God {Da7i,. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the 
world, as we learn from the Cherubim stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise 
to guard its entrance. — Noah and the other patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this 
truth, which to them had an intense interest : and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct 
their families on a subject of such importanre ; but these by degrees losing the more 
pure and spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the 
agents through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence it is 
'.hat men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits of the earth, 
others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so of all the rest; of 
gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries an^i nations, and who 
i\-ere themselves under th'^ dominion of the supreme God.' 

3. " A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds 
■»• all penpir , this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, tha', Protidtnce fre 



p. 11 INTRODUCTION. 85 

tides over all human events great and small, and that each, without exception, expe 
riences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the immense detail to whii-h the 
Divine Being must condescend, have felt bound to reHeve him, by giving to each of a 
number of deities some particular, appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria 
dispertientes officia numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve", too 
many concerns upon a single deity; the soil was intrusted to one, tlie mountains to 
another, the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augusnn {de Civiiate 
Dei, iv.8) recounts a dozen different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which 
each, according to his office, takes a special care at different times, from the first mo- 
ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. — Besides 
the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable duties of such affairs, there 
were others which were regarded as of a higher grade, because supposed to take a 
more noble part in the government of the world." 

The niunber of gods admitted in tiie Groek inytholoey wns irnmense, if we may take Hesiod'a 
testimony for aiitliority. He says t/iere are 30,000 irods on earth, jsnardians nf men. 

Warburtori (in The work cited P. IV. $ 12. ^) contends that the filtle.-^ re.^pectinii nietamnrphnses, 
which are recorded hy ancient authors, had their oriirin in the common l)eliet"of tlie doctrine of 
metevipsyckosis ; and the latter he atlirms to tiave been a " t>:eihod of explaining the ways of 
Providence, which, as they were seen to be iine^^oal here, were esipposed to be rectified iiere- 
after;" thus, he says, nieteinpsyc/in^iig naiiirally suggested meln'r-'irplnisis ; "as the way of pu- 
nishing in another state was by a transmigratiunof the suul ; so in this, it was by a tTunf^funna- 
tion of the budy.'" 

4, " A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which ever 
strives to auihorize its crimes and passions. The more imporiant and renowned of 
these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and deinmed by attri- 
buting to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the most detestable, murders, 
adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human heart has been ready lo multipK'^, 
distort, and pervert the fictions of myihology, for the purpose of palliating and excusing 
practices the most vicious and frightful by the example of the gods themselves. There 
is no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by 
the worship which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the viotltei 
of the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian would 
have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous 
man in the republic, to gn and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that 
his own mother should have been made a goddess to take the place aiid honors of 
Cybele." 

5. " I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from whi'-h Fable takes its 
rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a ffih source, 
we may refer to a natural sent immt of admiration or gratitude, which leads men to 
associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which particularly attracts 
their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which seems to procure for them 
some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon, and the stars; such are parents in view 
of their children, and children in that of their parents; persons who have either in- 
vented or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinguished 
themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared ihf. land 
of robbers, enemies to public repose; in short such are all who, by some viri.te or 
by some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It 
will be readily perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, 
has given rise to all those demigods and heroes A'hom Fable lias located in the heavens, 

, by associating, with the person and under the narine of a single individual, aciions 
widely separated in respect to time, place, and person." — Cf. P. V. *?> 222. 4. 

§ 6, The advantages of an acquaintance with mytholoory are many. One g* 
the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient philosophy, re- 
licrion, and history, is the better understandintr it enables one to obtain of the 
Greek and Roman writers and of the works of their artists. It is obviously ne- 
cessary to the cultivation of classical learrrino-, which is of such acknowledged 
importance in modern education. — Cf. P. IV. § 29. 

On the benefi's of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract ivomKullin, as 
cited under the last section. 

1. "It apprizes us hovv much we are indebted to Jesiis Christ the Savior, who has 
rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful light of 
the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men? Even the wisest 
and most upright men, those celebrated philosopl>ers, those great politicians, those 
renowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome? In a word, what 
were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the most enlightened? Fal)le 
informs u-^. They were the blind worshipers of some demon, and bowed 'he knee 
before gods of gold, silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues, 
deaf and mute. They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. Thev 
did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuour J'jno, a 



86 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason to hold the first 
rank among tlie gods. — :See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves should 
have been, had not the light of the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in 
Fable, every circumsiance m the hie of the gods, ought at once to fill us with confusion, 
admiration, and gratitude. 

2. " Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to us the 
absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of Paganism, it may inspire us with new 
respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its morals. 
Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishop «, in order to render idolatry 
odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the 
eyes of the pubHc, all which was found in the interior of a temple that had been 
demolished ; bones of men, limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other ves- 
tiges of the sacrilegious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the 
effect which the study of Fable must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; and 
this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of 
the Christian religion. I'he great work of St. Augustin, entitled 'The City of God, 
which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same lime a proof of what 
I now advance, and a perfect model of the manner in which profane studies ought to 
be sanctified." 

" This bishop was Tfieophihis of Alexandria ; respecting whom, see Murdoch's Translation of Mosheim, i. 392. 

We would here refer to a very atiie and interesting treatise by Tholvck, on The nature and moral 
influence of Heathevism amonpr the Greeks and Romans. — "Whosoever," says Tholiick, "stands on 
a lofty mountain should look not merely at the g;oid which the morning suri pours on tlie grass 
and flowers at his feet, hut he should sometimes also look behind him into the.di^ep valley where 
the shadows still rest, that he may the tuDre sensibly fe^l that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it 
is also salutary for the disciples of Christ, at times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a 
glance over the dark stage, where men play Cheir part in lonely gloom, without a Savior, with- 
out a God :" 

See a translation of Tholuck's Treatise by Prof. Emerson, in Sill. Repository, vol. ii. 

3. " Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the under- 
standing of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading which a per- 
son is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of poets merely, 
whose natural language is Fable ; it is ofien employed also by orators, and it fur- 
nishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most 
sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among many others, is that drawn from 
the story oi' Medea, in the speech of Cicero {Pro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the sub- 
ject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 

4. " There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated by 
a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. 1 hese are so 
many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their 
interpretation." It should be added, that mythology, at the same time, itself re- 
ceives new light from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that 
these two branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other. 

§ 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern countries, 
and having derived her religions notions particularly from Egyptians and Phoi- 
nicians, the origin of most of the Greek deities is to be sought in the religious 
nistory of those countries and nations. But many changes took place, and 
this original derivation vi'as greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, 
who wished to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit of their whole re- 
ligious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter the 
names of the primitive gods. 

Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many points of 
resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India. 

See Karl Ritter, Die Vorhatle Enroplischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodotus nni den Kaukasus iind an den Gesladen iles Pontus. 
Berlin, 1830. 8. Cf. Kennedy, as cited § 12. 2. (f ). Also Moore and Maurire, as there cited. Also the Works of Sir Wm. Jones, 

cited ^ i5. 4 On the influi-nce of the Phoenicians, &c. on tie early culture of the Greeks, cf. P. IV. § 40-42 ; P. V. § 12 On 

the changes successively wrought in the mythology of the Greeks, Mayo, vol. iii. p. 1 3, as cited § 12. 2. (a). 

§ 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence of its Gre- 
cian descent, beincr in scarcely any part of it a native growth, but borrowed 
chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Romans likewise changed, 
not only in many cases the names of the gods, but also the fictions of their 
story, and the rites of their worship. They also derived some notion? and 
usages from the Etrurians. (Cf, P. IV. § 109.) All the religious conceptions 
rind inslitntions of the Romans were closely interwoven ^viith their civil policy, 
dnd on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system 
<f atisoices. aug iries, and various omens. We find therefore in Roman mytho 



p. II. INTRODUCTION. 87 

logy much which the Greek had not, and much which was borrowed from it, 
but altered and as it were molded anew\ 

§ 9. Thus the general division or classification of the gods was not the same 
with both nations. The Greeks mdde a thi-et-f old division into Siiperi(jr gods, 
Inferior gods, and Demigods or heroes; the Romans a two-fold, into gods Supe- 
rior and Inferior [Dii majorum et minorxim gentium). Their first class the 
Romans distinguished as Consented and Selecti ,■ their second class, which in- 
cluded demigods or heroes, they also distinguished as Indigetes and Semones. 

1. In the Roman classification the Consentes , so called because they were supposed 
to form the great council {co?ise?i,tie?ites) of heaven, consisted oi twelve, 6 males and 6 
females; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan; Juno, Minerva, Ceres, 
Diana, Venus, Vesta. These were the great celestial gods. — The Selecti were nearly 
equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight, Saturn, Pluto or Orcus, Bacchus, Ja- 
nus, Sol, Geniud, Rhea, and Luna. These (the Consentes and the Selecti) were called 
Bii majorum gentium, and all the rest Dii minorum ge?Uium, in allusion to the division 
of the senators {patres). 

2. The Indigetes, called also Adscriptilii, were heroes ranked among the gods on 
account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pollux, and 
Quirinus or Romulus. — The Semones included those deities that presided over parti- 
cular objects ; as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of flowers, &c. — Besides 
these there were among the Dii minorum gentium a numerous class of miscellanei, 
including the virtues and vices, and other objects, personified ; and also a number 
called dii peregrini, foreign gods introduced at Rome from abroad, or at least tole- 
rated, although perhaps worshiped chiefly by foreigners residing in the city. 

3 t. The gods were likewise classed according to their supposed reside7ice. When 
thus classed, four divisions were made of them; the celestial gods (cf. % 11); the ter- 
restrial; ihe marine ; xhe infernal. 

The Co?ise?ites in the Roman division corresponded to the class which the Greeks, 
when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the Celestial and Olympiaii, 
lirovpavioi, dXvjjinioi ; which were also called hi i/eyaXoi Sedi, and hi ScoSsKa -S-edi. The 
Athenians had an altar consecrated to these collectively, 0mh6s tuv SdJSeKa. 

4 t. The gods are some*imes arranged according to their descent in the fabulous 
genealogies. But the genealogy of several of the gods is given variously by different 
poets and fabulists. 

The earliest Greek theogrony wrs thai of Orpheus (rf. P. V. $ 48). In Homer (cf. P. V. J 50) 
are traces of a second fheopony, which has been asrrit)ef1 to Pronapiries, said to have heeii tlit^ 
preceptor of Homer. Next is the re};iilar scheme of Hf'siod (cf. P. V. $ 51) in his poem entitled 
Theogovy. Parts of a fnnrth system irewronshf hy Aristot)haiies (cf. P. V. $65) iruo his comedy 
of the Clouds. A partial theojrony is minified bv Ovid (P. V. $36t) with his (Josmogony. Cicero 
(cf. P. V. (J 468) in his treatise on the natnre of the gods gives the genealogy of some. — See $ 12. 1. 

A genealogical table, accorrfinK to Hesiod''s Theogony, is ajipended to Cooke's Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51. 4). — A genealogical Chart (.■j 
Mythology is given in our Plate, page tO. 

§ 10. But the differences in the systems of the two nations need not essen- 
tially affect a scientific treatment of the subject of their mythology. For the 
principal deities of each were common to both, and it will contribute to brevity 
and comprehensiveness to include them all in one system of classification, 
pointing out what may be peculiar in each case as it occurs. It is therefore 
proposed to consider the gods of the Greek and Roman mytholoo-y in four 
classes; viz. (1) Superior Gods, (2) Inferior Gods, (3) Mythical Beings, whose 
history is intimately connected with that of the gods, and (4) Heroes. 

In the first class will be noticed the tioelve Consentes, or great celestial gods, and 
also, Janus, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto, and Bacchus. — In the second will be mentioned 
Uranus or CceIus, Sol, Luna, Aurora, Nox.'Iris, .i-Eolus, Pan, Latona. Themis, tEs- 
culapius, Pluttxs, and Fama. Here belong also numerous dei'ies of the Roman.o 
which were not common to them and the (.Greeks. — The tliird. class comprehends the 
Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, ruries, Gen;:, 
Lares, Satyrs, and the like. — Under \\\e fnirlJi and last fall the names of Perseus, 
Hercules, Theseus, and various others, whose achievements led to their deification. 

§ II. It may be proper to remark here, that the ideas entertained by the 
Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were exceedingly im- 
perfect. A beino- possessing powers of body and mind superior to those of 
man, especially superior might, mainly answered to their notions of a god. 
The superiority which they ascribed to their deities consisted chiefly in freedom 
from bodily decay, a sort of immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful 
celerity, to appear and disappear at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form 



8S 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



and to exert an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In these 
respects, however, their power was limited, accordincr to the general opinion, 
oeing controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of things, termed fate or 
destiny. 

'• Thfi ancient Oreeks believed their pods to he of ihe s;»nip sliape and form as themselves, bjl 
of far fireater i>eanly, strength, and dignity. Tliey also regarded tliem as being of much larger 
size than hien ; for in those times great size was esteemed a iierfection both in man and woman, 
and consequently was supposed to he an aitriliute of their divinities, to whom they ascribed all 
perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the placeof blood in Ihe veins of Ihe gods Tiiey were 
not capable of death, but they might i)e wounded or otherwise injured. They could make them- 
selves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms of men or of animals as 
it suited their fancy. Uke men, they stood in daily need < f food and slee(). The meat of the 
go,ds was called Ambrosia (^duPpoaia), their drink Nectar (fCKTap). The gods, when they can)e 
among men. often partook of their food and hospitality. 

" Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They 
married and had chihiren, just like mortals. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, 
or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth ; and these love-tales form a 
large portion of Grecian mythology. 

" To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their 
deities all human passicvns, both good and evil Tliey were capable of love, friendship, grati- 
tude, and alt the benevolent affections ; on the f>ther hand. the\ were frequently envious, jealous, 
and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from man- 
kind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro- 
cessions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect. 

" The abode of Ihe gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such as Homer and 
Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate of 
clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unf Ided its valves t(t permit the passage of 
the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may term 
it, was regulated on the same principles as a Grecian city of the heroic ages.- The inhabitants, 
who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their separate 
dwellings ; but all, when summoned, repaired to ihe palace of Jupiter, whither also came, when 
called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the under world. It was 
also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods feasted each day on am- 
brosia and nectar; which last precious beverage was handed round by the lovely gf>ddess Hebe 
( Yuufh), — maid-servants being the usual attemlants at meals in Ihe houses of the Grecian princes 
in early times. Here Ihey conversed of the affairs of heaven and earth; and as they quaffed 
their nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them with the tones of liis lyre, to whii h the 
Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, the gods retired to sleep in their 
res{»ectivp dwellings. 

" The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day in their chariots drawn by celestial 
steeds throtigh the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." {Kiif^laley, p. 14-17.) 

§ 12 t. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes specified, we will, 
in accordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references 
io the sources of information on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and 
then giving the titles to more modern works. 

1 u. Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch upon, mythological 
subjects ; although these are tmt by any means treated in the same manner in the different kinds 
of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. We have ()roperly vnjihic poetry in iheTheogony 
of Hesiod and the Cassandra of Lycophron (P. V. $67), the Metamorphoses of" Ovid, and in two 
poems of Clatidian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. V. $ 3b6).— Many histo- 
rians have introduced into their narratives mythological traditions, withoiu presenting them, 
however, as fully entitled to credence, while they have also recorded much that appertained to 
the worship r)f the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodfitus, Uiodorns, 
Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny, may be mentioned particularly —There were also ancient 
writers who niade mythology their theme, or treated the subject more at length ; as, among the 
Greeks, Jipollodorus, Conon, HeplitEstiov, Purthevias, Jlrtlvviiivs, Liberulis, Falaiphalus, Heracli- 
(Its, Phvrvvtus (P. V. $ 221 ss) ; among the Romans, Hyirimis and Fi/l^revtius (P. V. $502ss). 
Notices oB this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writers of the church, 
and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 

2?<. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject more at large, others 
more compendiously ; some present the subject in an alphabetical order; there are also works 
accompanied with plates and drawings for illustration. 



(a) TKe following are some of the works whicti go into more 
fu'.l details ;n the whole subject, or on particular parts. 

Lit. Grtg. HymlJi, His'oriae Ueor. Genlil Syntagmata xvli. 
Bas. 15-lS. fol. Also in his Qpp. Omn. (ed. /. Jcnsiw). Lugd. 
Hat. 16' 6. fnl. 

yuic. Cartari. le imaeini degli dei degl antlchi. Lion. 1581. 4 
A'.GO in Latin, I.ujd. \h%\. 4. oft. repr 

Nalabs Comttxs Mythologiae s. Explicationis Fabularuni librl 
X. Gen. 16.51. 8. . 

■ Gtrh.. I. V tiius, De thenlngia (ientili el physiologia Christiana, 
i. le uridine et progressu idclatria; libri IX. ' Anist. 166**. fol. 

j)nt. Biiiier, La mylholngie et Irs fabje.i expliquees par I'liis- 
oirc. Par. 1738-10 8 vols. 12. In German, wiih additions by 
I. .i.S'hle^et And J. M Schrnckh Lpz. 1735 65 5 vols 8. In 
R.-zlisb a-i/i^er. >lv I hology of Ihe Ancient." Lxjnd. 1739. 4 vols. 8. 



R. Mayo. System of Mythology. Philad. 1815. 4 vols. 8. 

F. t'icM2cr> Symbol ik nnd Mythologieder Allen Volker, beson- 
der? der Griechen. I^pz II:;19-21 4 Bde. 8 3d improved ed. 
commenced 1836.— Same (abridged) t))r G. .ff.JV/osfr. Lpz 1822.8. 

Cfi. ./9. Loltck, Aglaoidianius, sive de Theologige niysticseGrse- 
corum causis. ReginH ntii (Knningsberg), 1S..'9. 2 vols 8. op. 
posing some nf the views of Creuzer : it h is been highly coiu- 
mended. 

J. H Voss, Aiitisymbolik StuHg. 1824. 8. 

O Hermann. De .Mjtholo^ia Giaecorum antiquissinia. 1817. 

G. Hiriitrnin and F. Vreuzar, Briefe Uber Houier und Hesiodu*. 
Heidelb. 1818. 8. 

G. Hirniamt. Brief- Uber das VVesen und die Brhindlung dei 
Mytholoiie. Lpz. 1819. 8. 
J. Jl. Kuime's My hologie der Griechen. Lpz. I'-Co. 8.— Bi 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



89 



MMtK, erste Urkundendtr fjeschichte, oder allgemeine Mytholo- 
|ie. Baireuth, 1808. 2 Bde. 8. — By same, Pautheoii der alteslen 
Katurphilosophie aller Volker. Tub 1811. 8. 

J. L. Hug, Untersuchungen ilber d. Mythos d. berUhmtern 
Volker d. alt. Welt, vorzaglich d. Griech. Freyb. 1812. 4. 

K. O. MUller, Prolegomena zu eiuer wissenschaftlichen My- 
thologie. Gotlingen, 1825. 8. 

Butlmann, Mythologus. Berl. IS28. 2 vols. 8. 

S. A. L. Richltr, Phantasien des Alterthunis, oder Samm. . 
myth. Sagen der Hellenen, Romer, &c. Lpz. 1708-20. 5 Bde. S. 

We may add J. Sryant's New System of Mythology. Lend. 
1807. 6 vols. 8. 

Dupuis, Origlne de tous les Cultes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8. 

R. P. Knight, Inquiry into the symbolical Language of Ancient 
Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of ihe Classical Juurnal. 

Count de Gebelin, he Monde Primitif. Par. 1774-87. 9 vols. 4. 
explaining fables, traditions, symbols, and language. 

GttigjitauJ, Religions de I'Anliquite. Far. 1825-30. 4 vols. 8 

Constarit, De la Religion. Par. 1826-31. 5 vols. 8. 

{b) More compendious treatises, or manuals. 
C. T. Damm, Mythologie der Griechen und Romer (ed Leve- 
tow). Berl. 1820. 8. with plates. 

M. G. Hermann, Handbuch der Mythologie aus Hon er und 
riesiod. Berl. 1787-95. 3 vols. 8. — By same, Mythologie der 
Griechen, fJr die obern Klassen, &.C. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8. 

K.Ph Moritz, Gotterlehere, oder mythol. Uichlungen der Alten. 
Berl. 1819. 8. with plates. Also transl. by C. F. Jdger, N. York, 
1830. 12. wi!h plates. Same work in English, Mythological 
Fictions of Greeks and Romans. 12mo. 

Fr. Ramlach, Abriss einer Mythologie filr KUnstler. Berl. 
1796. -2 vols. 8. 

C. A. Bottiger's Grundrisse zu Vorlesungen Qber die Mytholo 
gie. Dresd. 1808. 8. — By siime, Amalthea oder Museum d. 
Kunslmylhologie und bildl. Alterthuniskunde. Leipz. 1821. 

F. Fiedler, Mythologie der Griechen und Italischen Volker. 
Hal. 1823. 

Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon; containing the Mythological 
systems of the Greeks and Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. wilh 
p'ates. 

FaZ^j/'i Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1832. 18. very brief. 
C. K. Dillaway, Roman Antiquities and Ancient Mythology. 
Bost. 1812. 12. 
T. Kcightley, Myth, of Greece & Italy, 2d. ed. Lond. 1838. 8. 

(c) Dictionaries of Mythology. 
B. Hederich, Mythologisches Lexicon (ed. I. J. Sckwabe). Lpz. 
17T0. 8. 

P. F.A. M7sc/!,Neues mythol. WOrterbuch (ed.i^. G. Klopfer). 
Lpz. 1821, 2 vols. 8. 
K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. WOrrerbuch fUr SchUler. Berl. 1817. 8 
/. G. GniLer, Worlerbuch der altklassischen Mythologie und 
Aeligion. Weim. 1810. 3 vols. 8. 

". C. Chompre, Dictionnaire abrege de la fable. Par. 1818. 12. 
Fr. Nnel, Dictionnaire de la fable, ou Mytholosie Grecque, 
Latine, Egyptienne, Celtique, Persanne, Indienne, Chinoise, &c. 
Par. 1823. 2 vols. . 

IVm. Holwe.ll, A Mythological Dictionary, &c. (Extracted 
from /. BryanVs New System or Analysis of Ancient Mytholo- 
gy.) Lond. 1733. 8. 

Bell, Nev/ Pantheon. Lond. 1790. 2 vols. 4. 
Encydopedie Methodique, the part entitled Antiquifes, Mytho- 
ogie, Chronologie, &c., which part consists of 5 vols. 4. Par. 
1786, S8. 
Biot^raphie Universelle, partie Mythologique. Far. 1832. 
vols. 8. 



(d) The following works contain plates illustrating the sub- 
jects of mythology, accompanied wilh explanations. 

Bernard de Moulfaucon, L'Antiquile expliquee et represente* 
en figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5, fol. Supplem. Par. 1724 
5 vols. fol. Translated into English by David Humph ttyi. 
Lond. 1721. 5 vols. fol. with Supplement, 2 vo s. fol. 

Joach. von Sandrart, Iconolngia deorum. NUrnb. 1680. «c!, 

Spence's Polymetis, or an inquiry concerning the agreemeat 
between the works of the Roman poets and the remains of the 
ancient'artists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol. 

Le Temple des Miises, a superb folio. 

D. Bardon, The Usages, religious, civil, &c., of the Ancienti 
Lond. 4 vols. 8. 

A. Hirl, Bilderbuch fUr Mythologie, Archiiologie und Kunsl 
Berl. 1805-16. 2 vols. 4. 

A. L. Millin, Galerie myihologique, ou Recueil des mi nu 
mens pour servir a I'etude de la mythologie, de I'histoire «ia 
I'art, &c. Par. 181 i, 2 vols. 8. containing correct pictures ot 
about 800 ancient monuments — Trans. Germ, by Tblhen. 

A. H Petiscus, Der Olymo, Oder Mylhologie der M%ypl'T, 
Griechen mid Rimer. Berl. 1837. 8. 6th ed. 

(e) The impressions on ancient gems are of much service >a 
illustrating mythology, to which part of the subject belong the 
following works: 

A. C. Klausing, Versuch einer mythologlschen Daktyliothek 
far SchUler. ' Lpz. 1781. 8. (with 120 neat impressions of en 
graved gems.) 

T. F. RoMs mythologische Daktyliothek. NUrnb. 1805 (wilt 
90 impressed models of engraved stones). 

Also LipperCs Daktyliothek (P. IV 5 210). One thousand o! 
his impressions belong to mythology 

The gems of which IVtdgewood ardBentley have given im.ita 
tions, pertain, many of them, to mythology ; as also those ol 
rame (P. IV. §210) 

(/) Here we may name likewise some works on the Mythe 
logy of other nations besides the Greeks and Romans. 

Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. 

Rhode, Ueber die religiose Bildung der h.ndus. Lpz. 1827. 
2 vols. 8. 

Kennedy, Researches into the Nature and Altiaity of Ancieul 
and Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Researches. 

Maurice, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vois. 8. 

IVard's View of the History, Literature, and Religion of lh( 
Hindoos. 

Mont g. Martin, Hist, and Antiquities of Eastern India. Lond. 
1838. 3 vols. 8. with some good plates illustrating Hindoo my- 
thology. 

C. Coleman, Mythology of the Hindus. Lond. 1S32. 4 
with plates. 

Hager, Pantheon Chinols (or Parallel between Ihe relig ."i 
worship of the Greeks and the Chinese). Par 1810. 4. Cf Cliss 
Joiim. i. 178. 

J. C. Prichard, Analysis of Egyptian Myinology ; in whfch 
the superstitions of the ancie_* Egyptians are compared .vith 
those of the Indians and ether nations ot antiquity. Lond. 1819. 8. 
also 1839, with preliminary essay by Von Schlegel ; and plates. 

Nyerup, WOrterbuch der Scandinavian Mythologie. Copenl 

iai6. 12. 

E Davies, Mythology and Rites of the British Dniidn. Lond. 
1809. 8.. 

J^ M Kemble, Saxon Mythology. Cf. Brhl. Repos. xi 247. 

For some remarks on the resemblance of Ihe rtiythplogy of tc« 
Middle Ages to the Classical, cf. Editorh J reface to iVartO'\\ 
Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. i. p. 25 is. ed. Lond. IS24. 



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p. n. SUPERIOR GODS. SATURN. d\ 



I. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. 

§ 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated Superior 
Go(/s, are the followino; : Saturn, Kpovoj, Xpo^-oj, Saticrnus j Janus; Hhea or 
Cybele, 'Pia, 'Pft'a, KviSh^r^; Jupiter, Zav$; Juno, 'Hpa; Neptune, UoasLSCjv 
Neptunus ; Pluto, IlTtorrtdv ; Apollo, 'ATtoxXuv ; Diana, ^'Aprf/^tj; Minerva, 
Iltt/'.Xaj; Mars, ^'Ap-/?$ ; Venus, 'A^poSJr?; ;' Vulcan, "Hqjato-roj, Vidcanus i 
Mercury, 'Ep^-^j, Mercurius ; Bacchus, Atoi^uooj; Ceres, Ajj^ua^r-z/p ; Vesta, 
Ecrta. 

§ 14. (I) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, called 
Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. He was said to be the 
son of Uranos and Titaea^ i. e. the heavens and the earth, and to have possessed 
the first government of the universe. His wife was Rhta, who was his sister. 
vSaturn and his five brethren were called Titans, probably from their mother; 
Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the govern- 
ment of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers ; yet 
pledged himself to rear no male children; accordingly he is represented as de- 
vouring his sons as soon as born. 

§ 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, escaped, 
through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him stones to devour in- 
stead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recovering his 
throne, after he had been driven from it by his brothers the Titans and bound ia 
Tartarus. But soon he made war himself upon Saturn, and seized the govern- 
ment. According to Roman fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called 
Saturnia), and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. 
Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets assigned to 
the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of 
the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly cieated, is the basis 
of this story. 

Hes. Op. et Di. vs. 199 — Kt>?. Mo, viii. 319.— Ou. Metam. i. 89-1 12. 

§ 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signifying time 
(;^pdi/oj), he has been considered as designed to personify time, and the first 
cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, as well as the story of his 
devouring his children, seems to have some reference to the idea of time, as 
satiated only by the destruction of what it has produced. 

1 u. This name, however, may have been given Iroin the idea of fertility or produc- 
tiveness, as he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Sa- 
turnus is derived from Satiir, signifying /«/Z, satialed, and a\so fertile. Saturn is 

termed Sator, Vitisalor, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or scythe), StercuUniis or Stercutius 
(having taught the fertilizing uses of manure), Canus and LeucanlJies {XevKavdrn). 

2. Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See 
Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. i. ^ 5. — •' Samrn was not unknown to the ancient Ger- 
mans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Ssatur ; who is described as 
standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of water hlled 
with fruits and flowers." HolwelVs Diet, cited § 12. 2 (c). 

§ 17. It was once customary to oflfer to vSatnrn human sacrifices, particularly 
amongr the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy.— ^ 
His principal temples among the Greek were at Olympia, and at Drepanum in 
Sicily, 'i'he temple of Saturn in Rome served also the purpose of a treasury, 
in memorial, perhaps, of the general security and the community of goods in 

the Saturnian or golden age. The chief festival of thi? deity was the Satur" 

nalia of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (rifToopta) of the Thessalians, 
devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality. 

1. The custom of sacrificing cliildren to Saturn seems to identify him w'Mh Moloch, i\\e Phoeni- 
cian idol, to whom the a|i(istate Israelites sacrificed their offspring. 

See Jahn, Bibl. Arch. § 211. — Diod. Sic. xx. 14. — Morin, and Frerel, Des victimes humaines, Mem. Acad. Insar. vols i. and 
«viii. — Origin of huniin sacrifices. Class. Joum. xiv. 3V2. xvii. I(M. 

2u. Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe or sickle 
m one hand, and often in the other a serpent with its tail in its mouth in the form ol r 
circle, bo'h emblems of time. There are, however, but few ancient monuments C 
this dei'v 



PLATE XI. 




92 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RUE A OR CYBELE. 93 

S. In oar Plate X. fig. 1, he appears in a sitting posture, with a sort of sickle in one 
hand. In the Sup. Plate 3, he appears with the scythe, a long heard, and wings. — 
He is also thus described : "a decrepit old man, with a long beard and hoary head; 
his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk ; his 
nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand holds 
a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour." 

§ 18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Rontians. They 
represent hin:i as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning- over the earliest and so- 
called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus 
that Saturn fled, and under them was the golden age, a period of uninterrupted 
peace. To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which 
was always open in time of war, and was closed with much 'solemnity, when- 
3ver there was general peace in the Roman empire; a thing which happened 
but three times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. P. 1. § 60). 
From this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the 
month was sacred to him. 

1. He was considered Jis the inventor of locks, doors, and gates, which are then'": 
called ;a?j?/ffi. His name was applied to structures which were sometimes erected on 
the Roman roads where four roads divided ; a sort of gateway with an arch openmg 
in each of the directions, and called a Janus. He was termed Father, and sometimes 
God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus, and oblations were 
made to liim, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original name was Djunus 
or Dianusi which some have derived from dies, day. He is called the Sun, and was 
the Su?i-god or God of the Year, of the original inhabitants of Italy. The story of his 
friendly reception of Saturn is by some explained as referring to the agreement be- 
tween the old inhabitants of Latium and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two 
gods in common. — Janus was not received among the gods of the Greeks. 

2?/. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence 
the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also called PatulciuSy Clusius, Con- 
sivius, Custos, and Claviger. 

3. The representation .with two faces in Plate XL fig. 8, and in Sup. Plate 3, gives 
fiis appearance on a number of consular coins. In Plate VII., on his temple, he ap- 
pears with four faces. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos is repre- 
iented with four heads. See Plate XII. — — Janus is also represented with a key in 
one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to 
refer to the 12 months of the year. His statue erected by Numa is said to have had 
its fingers so composed as to signify 365, the number of days in a year. 

§ 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife and sister of 
Saturn, was Bkea or Ops. Yet the history and worship of Cyhek were after- 
wards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, that both were considered th«! 
same person, and although Rhea was said to be the daughter of Earth, were 
each taken for Gaia or Tel/us, and often called Vestn., and the great mother of 
gods. The origin of Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, 
and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her. 

Cybele, properly speaking, lived later; and was, aticording to tradition, a 
daughter of Maeon a king of Phrygia and Lydia; or according to others, in an 
allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her invention of various musical 
instruments, and her love for ./?/?/ .s, a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered 
her frantic, are the most prominent circumstances of herhistory. 

Ovid, Fast. 4. 22Z.—Catulhis, de At.et Ber. 

Besides the names above mentioned, she'was called Mater Dyndymena, Bere- 
cynthia, and Ideea, Pessinuntia, and Bona Dea. 

§ 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as inhabited and 
fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was represented. 

1 u. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, v»'ith a 
turreted mural crown on her head. Often she was borne in a chariot drawn by lions; 
some'imes she rested upon a lion. 

2. On gems, she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine. 
Such is her appearance. Plate X. fig. 2, taken from Moiitfiucon. In the Sup. Plate 
B. she sits in a chair, with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. — She was also 
formed with many brrasts, with a key or keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, and 
frequently with two lions under her arms. In Sup. Plate b. is a remarkab'r. reorti 
sentation, given Vy Montfaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p. 18). Cf. P. IV. s^ 15fi. 2. 



94 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

A figrure in silver with some parts (ilcited witli ijnld, ;ind the whole elegantly fiiii^ihed, repre 
scnting Cybcle, was found at iMacon (Kncieiii jyiaiii-cti) on the Saoiie, in 17b4. 

Tills was puljlished by Courit Caylus, vol. vii. pi. 71 — Aatuoiis h niprieie — Banter, sur les stalues de Cybele, in the Mein- 
icad. Inscr. vol v. p. 241. 

§ 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but spread thence 
through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was exceedingly tumulttious, 
as her priests (called Corybanles or Galli, and the chief one Jtrchi'gallus) went 
about with clamorous music and singing, acting like madmen and filling the 
air with the mingled noise of shrieks, bowlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and 
spears. 

1 u. The removal of her image from.Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of 
her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The lestival called 3£egalesia 
(from ntydXn, the great mother) was maintained in her honor, 

I.iv. Hist. 29. to, II, 14.— Kdi. Max. 8. 15. 

2. The place called Pessinus was said to have derived its name from Ucctiv, iofa.ll, 
because it was the spot upon which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled 
Ancile and Palladinm sent down from Jupiter. 

At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar ; the ma- 
gistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and strangers usually 
assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess through the streets of 
the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated in a similar manner, and attended 
with many indecencies. 

3, There appears to be a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pran-iii, the goddess of 
nature among the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions," and her festival la 
attended with the beating of drums. 

See Moore's Hindoo Fantlieon. — Coleman's Mythology of the Hindoos. 

§ 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the gods was 
called by the Greeks Zsv?, by the Romans Jupiter. It would seem, that by 
this god was originally represented nature in general ; afterwards, the superior 
atmosphere ; and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history 
of Crete were incorporated among the traditions respecting him. He was a sop 
of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his father of his kingdom, 
and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune received the sea, Pluto 
the infernal world, and himself the earth and heavens. The giants, sons of 
the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to 
scale Olympus, but he defeated them with thunderbolts forged by- the Cyclops. 

Enraged by the corruption and wickedness of men, he destroyed the whole 

ace by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and Pyrrha alone escaped. The 
supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years B. C. 

Ovid, Melam. i. 131, 260.— Claudian's Gigaiitomachia Cf. P. V. § 386. 

§ 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a mountain of 
Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant serenity of its summit, 
represented as a suitable place for the abode of the gods. (Cf. § 11.) — His 
first wife was Metis, whom he destroyed, because it was foretold him, that she 
would bear a child that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the 
goddess Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, Themis^ 
he begat the Horse and the Parcae. — The third and most celebrated was Ju7io, 
by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan. — Tradition, particularly the tales 
respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors of Jupiter; e. g. with Eu- 
ropa', Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele^ and lo^ Apollo, Mer- 
cury, Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods 
were called the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter, 
however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity and rank, 
and not intended to imply literal relationship. 

1 Ovid, Metani. ii. S-36 2 /i ijj. 2- 5. 3 [b. \. 5S8 

§ 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numerous temples 
were erected to his honor. The largest and the most celebrated in Greece was 
that in Olympic in Elis, remarkable for its own magnificence, and for its coloesai 
•statue of Jupiter wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its 
vicinity every fifth year. ' His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was 
renowned (cf, P. HI. §-71), and considered the most ancient in Greece. — In 
Rum« the Capitol was specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city manv 
temples. 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. JUNO. O.'S 

1 u. Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a thunderbolt in 
his right hand, and in his left a long sceprer resembling a spear ; and the eagle, sacred 
to him, standing near, or, as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended 
wings. 

2. The representation in the Sup. Plate 2 corresponds to the above description. — The 
eagle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. Jupiter is also spoken of as wearing 
'' golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various nowers and figures of 
animals.'* — In the Sup. Plate 1 we have his appearance in a noble statue, from Speiice' s 
P ol y me tis --In thestatue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig^ 3) he is presented as " sitting upon 
his throne, his left hand holding a scepter, his right extending victory to the Olympian 
conquerors, his head crowned with olive, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts, 
and flowers. The four corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by 
a sphinx tearing in pieces a Theban youth." 

On the Olympian statue, see Flaxman's Lect. p. 87, as cited P. IV. § 191.— Qualr. de Quiiicy, cited P. IV. § 160. 

3. As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the horns of a ram. Such 
was the statue at his temple in Libya (cf. P. III. "^i 71). Thus he appears in the Sup. 
Plate 29. On ceremonial occasions, and when the oracle was consulted, this statue, 
sparkling with precious stones, was borne in a gilded I arge on the shoulders of twenty- 
four priests moving (it was pretended) just where the god impelled them, followed by a 
troop of women singing hymns. 

But the most .singular representation is that given in the Sup. Plate 10, exhibiting 
Jupiter Pluvialis, as found in a bas-rehef at Rome, designed to commemorate his in- 
terposition in sending rain on a certain occasion. 

§ 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles deftVed from circum- 
stances of his history, or the places of his worship. 

1 II. The Greeks termed h"m Zevi, and applied to him various epithets, as the Idcsaii 
(6 'MaTuj). Olytnpic ('OXtj//n-tK-ds), DodoJicEOJi (Awcwi/aTos), thiutderer {KEoavvins), deliverer 
{e^evBspios). hosvilahU (|£J"os), punlsher of the perjured {ooKiui), &c. The Romans 
styled him Oplimus Maxiyntis, Capitolinus, Sfator. Diespiter, Ftrefrius, &c. As the 
avenger of crime, he was called also Vtjovis or Vediits ; yet some consider these as 
names of another distinct divinity: and others take them lor names of Pluto. 

2. Among the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following; from his 
sending roin, oixSptu^, venog, vecpE^riyeosTrii, oocivecpfig ; from his darting thunder, dcrre- 
poKTjrfis, Ppoi/TaTos. TepiTLKepavfos ; from his protection of suppliants. iKeaios, iKerFatoi. The 
Romans also called him sometimes I?ive?ifor. Elicii/s. Latidl'i!^, Sponsor. Victor. Plu- 
vialis. — His Latin nanie Jupiter is from Zeti Ylartp, Z being changed into J. From Zstj 
(in Doric Serf? and ^olic ^^vi) came also probably the Latin Deus. The word is by 
some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source 
of life from. ^'iw. 

3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of tne 
various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from many different 
personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in the descent 
of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When the different tales 
are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic 
ornament, and philosophical allegory. 

4. 5ir JVilliam .Tuves, with much ingenuity and learning, ha= attempted to show that the Greeks 
and Romans etn!)0(lied in their Jupiter tlte special attrihiites which the Hindoos ascribe disti'ic- 
riveiy to the three divinities of their lainuiis triad, n-Ame. A Brahma, Vishnu, and Sira. In esse.i- 
tial attributes, Brahma is said to he the creator. Vishnu the preserver, and 8iva the destroyer 
and re-producer. Each of these offices is ascribed to.Iiipiter in tlie classical fables, acconlinj; to 
Sir Wiijiain. — The Elindoo deitie.s are given in our Plate XII. as usually seen in Bengal : Brahma 
with four faces and four hands, holdins a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a Veda or Hindoo sacred 
book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hai'ds, in one of which is a sort 
of ring or discus, which is said to send out flames of fire when twirled on his finuer, and in the 
others a shell used for a trum|)et, a sort of clul), and a lotus ; Siva, having a trident in one hand 
and a rope in another for binding ofTemiers, with setpents for iiis ear-rings, and a string of human 
heads for his necklace. He has a third eye in his forehead. 

It is worthy of iDtice, that the IIind>)o fables represent Vishvu as assuming diflr-Tent forms i»y 
successive incarnations, in the e.xercise of his attributes as preserver. Ten incarnations, or 
Jtraiars. are specially designated. These are represented by tlie leu engravings in our Plate 
XHI. "All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets'; with rays 
encircling their heads; jewels in their ears: two neckl.ices. one strai^rht and one pendant on 
their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of niany-cidored flowers, or colhirs of pearls, haiis- 
ing down below their waists ; loose mantles of irolden tissue or dyed silk, embroidered on Ilieit 
hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder; with bracelets on one arm and on each 
wrist; they are naked to the waists, and uniformly with dark azure flt^sh ; but their skirls are 
bright yellow, the color of the curious pericarpium in the centre of the water-lily ; they are 
Fomeiimes drawn witli that flower in f)ne hand; a radiated elliptical rins. used as a missile 
we-tpon, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinum. in a tliird ; and a mace nr bal- 
tle-axe. in a fourth." Nine ot" these incarnations ihe Hindoo tales describe as bavins alreadj 
occurred. The ievtii is to take place at some future period, tvhen Vishnu will descend from 
heaven on a white winged horse, and will introduce on earlh a siolilen ase of virtue atid (>- nee.— 
It should be remarked in this connection, that Crishna is celebrated in Hindoo mythology as %p 



96 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGV. 

incarnate deity. According to Sir Wtn. Jones, lie is considered distinct from all the Avatars 
lliese had only a portion of the divinity; "while Cri.-<lnia was l\\^^ person'ot ^'I'hnj. himself \x\ 
liUMian form " In the Hindoo pictures, Crishtia sfinielimes appears amotiL' the Avatars; lie is 
" more splendidly decorated than any of them, and wears a rich garland of sylvan Huwers as low 
as liis ankles, which are adorned with strings of pearls." 

See Sir IVm. Jimts, on the adds of Greece, I'aly, and India, in h s Wurks \\\d Lift hy Lin) Tejinniniilh, Loi'd 1807 IS vols. 8. 
(loi. lii. p, 3 '8.) — Cf. MavU/ily Papers of the ^. B. Curnrn. for For. Miss , .Nos. ii and vii. May and Oct. l;ri;-2 — tVarii, as ciled ^ 12. 

§ 26. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of Saturn and 
Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of jjods and men, was called by the 
Greeks "Hpa, and by the Romans Jtmo. Her birthplace was assigned by the 
(Greeks to Arcros, or the island Samos, and to other spots in Greece, aithoiigl: 
her story and her worship were rather of Phoenician oriirin. The chief pecu- 
liarities of her character were love of power, and jealousy ; the latter passion 
was constantly inflamed and fed by Jupiter's infidelity. — In consequence of this 
jealousy she wrought several metamorphoses, as in the case of Calisto' and 
Galanthis^. Hence also her wrath against lo^ and Semele', and her ill-will 
towards the Trojans because Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest 
with Pallas and Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of Ju- 
piter, who once, according to Homer's representation^, suspended her in the air 
by a golden chain. Ixion's love for her was punished by Jupiter with ever- 
lasting torture, he being bound to a wheel constantly revolving. 

1 Ovid, Metam. ii. 474. ^ lb. ix. 306. 3 lb. i. 56S. ■> ///. iii. 156. 5 Iliad, xv. 15, 18. 

§ 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her temples 
and festivals was very great. Her worship was especially cultivated in Argos, 
Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and (Carthage, cities which committed themselves 
particularly to her protection. In Elis were games, every fifth year, sacred tc 
her, called 'llpata. This was the name also of her great festival celebrated al 
Argos and other places, which was likewise called txaro^ti/^ota, because it was 
customary on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the 
goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome, called Junonia and Junona' 

lia. From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called among 

the Romans Jummes. The Roman women took their oaths in her name, as 
the men did in the name of Jupiter. Both Greeks and Romans honored her as 
the protectress of marriage. — The Romans dedicated to her the month of June^ 
named' after her.- — She is often described by the poets as the Queen of gods 
and men. 

1 Ovid, Fast. vi. 26. 

1. Juno had a great variety of names; as Argiva, Cingnla, Egeria, Jnga (Zvyia)^ 
Lucinia or Lucina., Moneta_, Nuptialis (TaMr/Xta), Opigefia, Popvlonia, Sospila, Uuxia, 
&c. 

2 u. Her daughters were Hebe, goddess of youth ; and Ilifhyia, who presided over 
births. Her messenger and servant was Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. 

3. Hebp was employed to hand ronnd the nectar at the feasts of the gods. Her office of cup- 
bearer afterwards fell to Ganymedes. When Hercules was admitted to Olympus. Hehe hecatno 
his spouse. — In fig. 4, PI. XIV. she is represented as pouring out the nectar, with the bird of Jove 
liy her side. — In the beautiful design presented in the Sup. Plate 7, she is also seen pouring out 
the drink of the gods. 

§ 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness and jealousy 
of Juno in their representations of her. Annong the symbols of her attributes, 
the most remarkable was the peacock, held as sacred to her; and found by her 
side in many figures. Sdmetimes her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She 
was frequently represented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, 
often contain the Empresses exhibited as Junes. 

1. She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron; usually wilh a sceptre n 
her hand, and a veil on her head ai:d a crown decked with flowers; ponietimes she 
has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is some- 
times at her feet. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 1. In the Sup. Plate 2, are 
seen two pea''ocks and the chariot, with Iris flying above.' — Homer exhibit.5 her in a 
chariot adorned wi'h gem^, having wheels with brazen spokes and naves of silver, and 
horses with reins of gold.- But generally she is represented as drawn by peacocks in 
fi golden cnariot. 

2. The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the meaning. 
»»t3'^hed to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typifying, oi 



PL ATP, XII. 




98 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

n.legorically representing, the active productive power in nature, Juno is aie passtve. 
Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories. 

§ 29. (G) Neptune. The g-overnment of the waters of the earth was, in the 
division of authority already mentioned (§ 22), assigned to the brother o( Ju- 
piter, called IlooftStov, or Nepiune. The idea of a god ruling the waters arose 
froin the surprise of the first observers of the power of that element; even be- 
fore Neptune, Oceanus, son of the heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, 
was honored as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the 
Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the 
earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune. 

1. A statue dug up at Rome about the sixteenth century, represents Oceanus as an old mafi 
sitting on the waves of the sea, with a sceptre in his hand, and a sea-monster by him. On an 
ancient gem he is represented in a similar manner. In our IMate XLllI. he appears in a recum- 
bent posture. 

2 u. The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of Nereus or Oceanus and 
Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish 
vvitif a place among the cons'ellations. 'J he principal sons of Neptune were I'riton, 
Pborcus, Proteus, and Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these minor deities ot 
the sea were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The 
daughters of JNereus and Doris were the so-called Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in 
number. They belonged to the. train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 

§ 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assist- 
ance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans; the building of the 
walls and ramparts of Troy ; the creation and taming of the horse ; the rais- 
ing of the island Delos out of the sea ; and the destruction of Hippolytus by 
a monster from the deep. He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and 
deluges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his trident. The fol- 
lowing are some of his many names and epithets; ''Ac^d^LOi, upholding the 
earth; 2ft(jt;f^cdv, earth-shaker ; "irtTiao^., Petraeus, Co7isus. 

1. Various etymologies have been given of the name UoaEiScJu and Neptune. Tho 
latter is by some derived from Ntibo, because the water covers or conceals the earth; 
the former from TofJ? and <5£w, as Neptune binds the feet, that is, man cannot walk on 
the water. But such speculations cannot be relied on. The government and pro- 
tection of ships was committed to him. He also presided over the horse, which was 
sacred to him, and over horse-races; at the liesiival of the Consualia all horses were 
allowed to rest from labor. 

2 u. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from Egypt, 
Dut Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the coasts, as presiding 
over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus, on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a cele- 
brated temple, and also on the promontory of Taenarus. Of his temples at Rome, the 
most noted was that in the' ninth district (cf P. T. "^ 54), containing a suite of pictures 
representing the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were 
norses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the 
Romans the Neptunalia and the Consualia, which were afterwards, from the place of 
celebration, called Ludi Circe7ises. 

§ 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with the dignity 
ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front calm and serene even 
in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre, 
with three tines, with which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters 
into commotion. He is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in 
a chariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants. 

The representations of Neptune are various. Sometimes he stands upright in a 
large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green ; as in 
our Plate X. fig. 5. Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. Often he 
is sitting in a chariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn by sea-horses; sometimes accom- 
panied by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLHI. His image is very frequent on coin3 
and medals. He is described as having black hair and bluo eyes. 

Cf. Kirp. lEn. i. 124. Horn. II. xiii. 20. Firg. JEn. i. 155. Stat. Achil. i. 60.— See Fontenu, Le Culte rtes divinites iles eaux, 
■s '.he Merit, .icad. I.iscr. xii. p. 27. 

§ 32 a. (7) Pluto. He' was a second brother of Jupiter, and received, as 
:iis portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions, or the world of shades. 
Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated down 
V below the earth, and they represented certain d'stant and desert lands af» 



I'. II, SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. 99 

servinor for a path and entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respect- 
ing Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phleg-ethon, as bein^ rivers of Hell. These 
regions below the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls, 
where after death they received rewards or punishments according to their con- 
duct upon earth. The place of reward was called E/i/sium ; that of punish- 
ment, Tartarus. 

1. The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks aSm, Hades. It is iiii 
portant to bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New Testament, where 
this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes /lell, 
properly signifies the world of departed spirits, and includes both the place of happiness 
and the place of misery. Cf Luke xvi. 23. 

It was a part of the office of Mercury to conduct the shades of the dead in the region called 
Hades. Hence he is sometimes re|)resented as in the act of opening or shutting the d;)ors or 
gates of a tomb ; as on the monument given in Plate XVIII. fig. 4. and in the Sup. Plate 14. 
This figure is given in Taylor's Calmet to illustrate the expression ''Gates of Hades," in JIatt. 
xvi. 18. 

On the uieaning of the term Hades, see M. Sluarl, Exegetical Essays, &c. Ando. 1830. 12. — Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv 
p. 539 ^s. — Campbell, Diss, in his Transl vf tfie Gospels. 

2. Departed mortals were adjudged to FMjsium or to Tartarus by the sentence of Minos and 
his fellow judges (cf $ 34), in the Field of Truth. — Elysium is described as adorned with beauti- 
ful gardens, smiling meadows, and enchanting groves; where birds ever warlile ; wliere the 
river Eriilanus winds lietween banks fringed with laurel, and "divine Lethe" glides in a quiet 
valley; where the air is always pure, and the day serene ; where the blessed have their de- 
lightful abode. — Tartarus is represented as a '"hideous prison of immense depth, surrounded by 
the miry bogs of Cocytus, and the river Phlegethon which rf)IIs with torrents of tiames," anu 
guarded by " three rows of walls with br4zen gates ;" here the Furies torment their wretched 
victims, and all the wicked suffer according to their crimes. — Virgil speaks of seven portions in 

the regions of the departed ; Tartarus and Elysium being the sixth and seventh. Althiuigli 

Elysium was considered by all as the residence of the blessed, its situation is variously stated ; 
some placed it in the center of the e.irth. adjoining Tartarus ; others placed il in the middle re- 
gions of the air ; others, in the moon ; others, in the sun ; more commonly, however, the man- 
sions of the blessed were said to be in the Fortunate Islands, bisula> Fortuvatce (cf. P. I. $ 1S3). — 
Tartarus is also variously located ; Homer places il in the country of the Cimmerians, supposed 
by some to have been around Tartessus in Spain, and by others to have been near Bai.e in Italy; 
Virgil places the entrance to it, or rather the entrance to Hades, in a cave near lake Avernus in 
Italy; others place the entrance at the prfunontory of Tapiiarus ; others, in 'Ihesprolia. — In the 
Sup. Plate 13, is a composition designed to re[)resent the Tartarus of ancient mythology. Charon 
in his boat, Piuto with his sceptre, and the three .ludg s a[)pear in the fore-ground, with several 
mortals awaiting their seiitence. Tlie Furies are lashirig two criminals just given over to their 
power; and various offenders are suffering their peculiar [)unisliments as narrated by the poets; 
for which see the history of Prometheus and others, especially L\ion and the other offenders 
mentioned under J 34 b. 

On the views of the ancients respeclhi? the state of the soul after death, cf. Homer. Od. xi.~.Sscliyltis, in his Prometheus and 
Persae. — Plato, in his Phsedo.^Cicero, Ue cnnienmenda nrorte, and Somniimi Scipionis — Virgil, ^.u. vi. cf Tibull El. i. 3 vs. 57 ss. 
— GUibart, on Virgil's JEn. vi.. In his Miscellayieovs IJ'orks — Heyne, Excursuses in his editions of Vjrgil and Homer (cf. P. V. ^ 50. 5 
§ 362. 4). — C. F. Xdgelsbach, Die Honierische Theolngie hi ihrem Zusammenhange. Narnb. 1S40. 8. — De Fuvrniont, L'E»fei 
Poetique, in the Mem. Jlaid. Inscr. vol. iii. 5. — Class. Joum. iii. 276. si. 318. 

^ 32 u. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of 
Ilepaefpour}, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and ihe queen of the lower 
world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event 
are related fully and poetically by Claudian' and Ovid^, and furnished the ancient artists 
with frequent subjects for their skill in device and representation^. 

» De raptu Proserpinae, L. iii. — ^ Metani. v. 341. 3 See MorUfaueon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 37-41.— See also our Plate X. 1 

and the Sup. Plate 14 ; in both which the seizure and abduction are represented. 

The name of Proserpine was sometimes applied to Diana, when considered as a goddess of the 
lower world. Cf $ 39. 

'^ 33 u. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air inenacing, terrible, 
and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit hini upon a throne, with a bifurcated scej 
tre, or a key, in his hand. A rod is sometimes put into his hard instead of his sceptri 
The device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring-vessel, instead 
of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed trom the images of Serapis. 

1. He appears crowned with ebony; sometimes with cypress leaves; sometiinet. 
with flowers of narcissus. He is also someiimes represetited in the act of bearing off 
Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged dragons; such is the appearance in our Phite 
X. fig. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 11 he appears vviih a long heard, in a sitting posture, rest- 
ing his head on one hand, holding in the other a long scepire, with Cerberus at his feet. 

2. He is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer invisible; like th€ magii 
ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cic. de Off iii. 9. Herod, i. 8). 

§ 34 a. His worship was universal; but it was attended with s-pecial soleui 
nities in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia 
was also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated ithemselves to Pluto. 
10 



100 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The victims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his prin- 
cipal names were Ztls Gtvyto^, Soranus, Summanus, Februus. 

The Greeks named him IlXovrwv as some suppose from t(Xovtos, wealth, which comes 
from the bowels ot the earth. The Romans gave liim the name Dis, having the same 
sense. He is also called "Ajij?, Orcus, Jujiiler infemus, &c. — His chief testival was 
in February, when the Romans offered to him the sacrifices called Februa, whence the 
name of the month, flis rites were performed by night or in the dark. Tiie cypress 
was sacred to him, branches of whicli were carried at funerals. 

§ 34 b. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower 
world, Mi?ios, Rhadainanlhus, and- ^W^acua. These decided the condition 
of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos held th 
first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in Grecian history as rea 
persons. 

1 u. At the entrance to the world of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, lav the dog Cerhe 
rus, a three-headed monster, that hindered the spirits from returning to the upper 
Vv'orld. 'l"he most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were Ixion, 
Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the xA-loides. 

2. Charo?i is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was to con- 
duct the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Syx and Acheron to the realms of 
Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obolusi a small piece of money, it was 
customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the deceased before the 
funeral rites. Such as had not heen honored with a funeral were compelled to wander 
on the shore a hundred years before they could be transported. 

In the Sup. Plate 14, Charon is seen sitting in his boat, in the act of receiving the obelus from 
a mortal introduced by Mercury. 

3. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial 
and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing thetn the honors of burial. For this trial ail 
were carried across a lake in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon. 

Riillin, Anc. Hist. bk. i. cti. 2. sect. 2. — Of Class. Journ. vol. x.xiii. p. 7. — Bulletin des Sc'ences Historiques, vol. iv. p. 3r52. 

4. There are numerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art which seem to refer 
to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be often sytnboiized by the figure of a pair of 
scales or balances, as if it were a weiirldnsr of the soul {'djvx'^'^Taa'KL); to which there may be an 
allusion in the prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall of Belshazzar's 
dining-room {Dan. v. 27). In fig. B. of our Plate XVIII. is a representation of this kind; in 
which we see the Egyptian balances, and a number of priests and allegorical or mythical per- 
sonages. 

This drawing is reduced from -one given in the great French worl{ s'yled Description de VEgypte, &c. ef. P. IV. § 23;. — See Mem 
ie VInstitut, Classe d'Histoire et Lit. Anc. vol. v. p. 84, sur la Psychostasie, ou pesee des anies, with plate. 

§ 35. (8) ApoLro. The earliest and most natural form of idolatry was the wor- 
ship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splendor, light, heat, and salutary 
influence upon all nature, were taken as the supernatural and independent powers 
of a deity. Hence the ancient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary, 
which was worshiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Per- 
sians under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of 
Phoebus ($ot|3o?) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, considered their 
"Hxto? and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the history of Apollo 
many circumstances not connected with his original character as the god of 
light. 

The worship of the Persian Mithras C^Mithras Persiilicus"), is said to have heen introduced at 
Rome iti the time of Pompey ; altars being erected with the Inscription, Deo Soli invicto Mithrm — 
Some of the antique representations of this god are very remarkable. On the engraved stones 
called Jlbraxas (cf P. IV. ^ 200>, he often appears under the figure of a lion, or of a man with a 
lion'3 head In the ?>up. Plate 9, are two representations. 'I'he first is from a bas-relief found 
at Rome, about IfiflO; the image is a man draped below the loins, haviiii; two wings on each 
shoulder, with a head partly that of a lion, and a lighted tlambeaii in each hand; a serpent 
twines around his shoulders and wings, and from his mouth issues a sort of fillet or ribin, 
which in the original monument floats over a blazing altar. — The other is from a marble bas- 
relief, found at Rome in a house near the theatre of Pompey ; in this Mithras appears a vigorous 
young man, with a turban on his head, his knee resting on a prostrate bull ; with one hand he 
holds the nostrils, and with the other plunges a dagger (ncinaces) into the m'Ck of the animal ; a 
dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while another lies near by, a|)pareiitly harkint: ; a scor- 
pioi adhf res to the lower side of the bull, and a slain or sleeping serpent is stretched at his feel. 
The monument has several acrotnpanying images, some of which are given in the engraving, 
ftlthough not in their original place; two youths appear with fl;unbeaux, that of one being in- 
verted ; a man with a radiated head occupies a chariot with fmr horses lea|)ing in apparent 
fright ; in another chariot'is a woman with horns or crescents attached to her head, almost 
Ihrown out by (he stumbling of her horses ; denoting doubtless the sun and moon. 

See Monlfaiicon, Antiij. Expl, vol. i. p. 367-384. — Creuzer, Symbotik und Mythologie, &c. vol. i. p. 345 ss. — Cf. Smtt/i, D'ni 
)* Ao'iq. »>. fi. 



p. II, SUPERIOR GODS. APOLLO. DIANA. lOi 

§ 36. According to both Greeks and Romans, Apollo was the son of Inpitei 
and Latona, born on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god of the 
sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. They ascribed 
to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, which he proved in 
killing the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The -last 
achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from Olympus. During 
his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd^ with Admetus king of Thessaly. He 
also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the 
laborers with his lyre and songs. His musical contest^ with Pan and JMarsyas 
js referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable circumstances 
m his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation^ into a laurel-tree; 
that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis* into a sun-flower; his friendship 
for Hyacinthus^, who was killed by Apollo's inattention, but changed into the 
flower of that name ; and for Cyparissns, also accidentally slain and changed 
intoatree^; the indiscreet request of his son Phaeton'', to guide his father's 
chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt. 

I Ov. Met. ii. 680. 2 vi. 3^2. xi. 146 3 Met. i. 452. * iv. 206, 256. s x. 162. s x. 106. 1 1. 750. 

§ 37 a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both Greeks and 
Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he gave oracles at Didyma, 
Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple at Be/phi, and the oracle con- 
nected with it, was the most celebrated ; next in fame was that in Argos, and 
the one at Rome on the Palatine hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a 
famous library. The Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Fythian games, 
and the Romans those called ludi ApoUinares and the ladi secu/ares. The 
laurel and olive, the wolf and haw k, the swan and grasshopper, the raven, 
crow, and cock, were sacred to Apollo. 

1 u. The following names were applied to ApoUa: CinHiius. Delius, Nomius, Fa- 
lareus, Fythius (RvOioi), Sminlheus, Thymbraus. 

2. He had also the following names: Adftaj, Ilrttdj/, 'Eajj/JoA'^j, To^o0dpos, AA£^i«-a(cos ; 
Vultiiriua, EpideUus, Lycius, Delphinius, Delphicas, Adins. 

§ 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the 

highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal 

youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monuments with long 

hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow and lyre, and a quiver on 

his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most celebrated monument is tlie 

marble statue, called the Apollo Belvidere. 

A view of this monument is given in our Plate XLIV. fig. 3, drawn from Winckelmann. See 
P. IV. $ 186. 4. Cf. Tibull. L iii. Ele. 4. v. 27. 

1. " Sometimes he is painted with a crow and a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a 
laurel-tree on one side and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet grass- 
hoppers creeping." Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the .Muses: cf § 103. 
He also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is 
seen in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many 
monuments; here is seen also an altar with a lyre sculptured on it. — A siatue o*^ Apollo 
stood upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and was seen at . great 
distance at sea, 

2. The stories respecting Apnilo resemble those in the Hindoo mytliology respecting Crisfina, 
who is sometimes painted in companj' with vine damsels, who are whimsically grouped into ihe 
form of an elepliant, nn which he sits and plays upon his flute. Crishna is also frequently repre- 
sented as the dt'stroyer of the great serpent ; in scmie views he is held in the folds of the serpent, 
which is hiiing hi< foot; in others, he holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands, 
and crushes its head beneath his foot. 

Cf. Sir Wni. Jmies, as cited § 25. A.—^natk Researches, vnl. viii. —Caimef'i Diet. &c vol. iii. p. 529 of eJ. Charlestowu, 1813. 

§38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, andwas born of Latona 
on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in Apollo the sun was 
deified and adored ; so was the moon (Jima, af%r;vyj) in Diana, who was called 
by the Greeks "Aprfutj. She was also recognised as the goddess or hunting 
or the chase, of which she was passionately fond in her youth. She was like- 
wise viewed sometimes as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the name of 
Hecate. As presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with 
arrows, and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the- grant of 
her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence 



102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

her displeasure at the transoression of one of her nymphs, Callsto', and hei 
transformation of Actaeon^ into a stag-. The only one, towards whom she was 
not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph 
Chione^ from jealousy of her beauty, and the daughters of NiobC* because 
Latona was slighted l?y their mother. 

1 Ov. Mel. ii. 464. 2 iii. 194. 3 ix. 321. ■» vi. 148-312.— Cf. Horn. II. x-^h-.—Hyg. fab. 9. 

Tlie Story of Niobe and lier children (cf. $ 81, $ 131), afforded to poets and artists a rich subject 
for the enibellishments of fancy. The nnniber of the children is variously staled ; Homer gives 
her six sons and as many daughters; while others say seven, and some even len. In Iht! s()len- 
did group of statuary c;illed J^iobe and her Children (cf P. IV. $ lb6. -i), seven sons and seven 
daughters are represented. Montfaiicon gives an engraving from a most beautiful antique, 
found at Rome, in which Apollo and Diana appear in the air discharging their arrows upon the 
unhappy family; the youngest daughter clings to her mother; a horse is leaping in fury upon 
anothnr daughter ; one son lies dead on the plain ; the other children are in attitudes of distress. . 
In our Sup. I'late 17, this stibject is represented in a composition, in which Amphion is intro- 
duced, and a concourse of the citizens nf Thebes. — A person dying by plague or pestilence waa 
said to be slain, if a male, by the arrows of Apollo ; if a female, by the arrows of Diana. 

See Montf. Ant. Exp. vol. i. p. 107. — Mayo, Mythology, vol iii. p. 109 ss. 

§ 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, nowhere had 
she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3.) With this 
exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, especially 
through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal temple at Rome 
was that erected by Servius Tullius on Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festi- 
val of the ludz seculares were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she 
was particularly honored under the name of Lucina, d.'& presiding over births. 
In this view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia {iLXti^vLo)^ 
although this was the name (cf. § '27) of a distinct divinity. 

1. The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to her goats, or a 
white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. 'I'he inhabitants of Taurica offered on her altar 
strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 

2 u. Among her names were Phoebe, Cy?iihia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, Agrotera 
^dyporepa)i Trivia (tpioSitis)^ from her statues being placed in crossvvays as she pre- 
sided over streets; Chilone ixirCivr]) -^ and Triformis {rpifiopcpos), from her threefold 
character as goddess of the moon or month, the chase, and the lower world. 

"Diana is called Trifurmis and Tergewina: first, because though she is but one goddess, yet 
she has three difFr'renl names as well as three ditferent otfiies : in the heavens she is called 
Luna ; on the earth she is named Diana ; and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in the 
heavens she enlightens everything by her rays ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts bj 
her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her byhe 
power and atithority: secondly, because she has. as the poets say, three heads; the head of a 
horse on the right side, nf a dog on the left, and a human head in the midst ; whence some call 
her three-headed or three-faced : thirdly, according to some, because the moon has three phases 
f)r shapes ; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light ; the half-moon fills a semi- 
, circle with light ; and the full lin)on fills a whole circle or orb with splendor." 

3. Other natues or epithets were applied to her: 'Koxeia, Kwrjyds, opiaiKotToc;, lux^nip.i 
and '■ ^nil)6pos. 

§ 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments of art, tall 

and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her 

feet covered with buskins, with bow and arrows, either alone, or accompanied 

by he nymphs; often with a hound near her: often riding in a chariot drawn 

by t" o white stags. 

In nir Plate X. fig. 7, she is seen in ber chariot drawn by stags. — In the Sup. Plate 15, she is 
given as represented in a beautiful statue, supposed to have come from the same hands as the 
Apollo Belvidere. 

1. " Soiuetitues she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther in 
the other, wi h a cliariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different colors." 

2 u As the goddess of night, or the moon, she is represented in long robes, with a 
Urge starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent on her head. 

See Plate XI,I — Cf Plate XIV. fig 2.— See $76. 

3 u. We have fiaiures of the Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek 
itnitation of it, in which she is exhibited wi'h numerous breasts, and very similar to 
Isi.^. whereby the irui'fulness oi' nature seems to have been represented 

Montfaiicon gives several of these (igures. One of the most remark.ible is presented in our 
Sup. Plate Ifi; on the head of ihe siatiie is a double mural crown ; a larye festoon is suspended 
from the tuck, and within it are two image* of Victory; on each arm are two lions; the body 
tapers to the feet like a Hermes, but is diviiled into four portions, the fi Tt of »vhicli is occupied 
r>y numerous breasts, the second by heads of stags, and the third and fourth jy t:Lft(is of oxen. 

t ^v the Sup Plite 12 are three views of a statue of Diana Trifor..-,' ir(.tn Monlfauci.T 



TLATl': yilT. 




103 



104 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOG\ . 



presfMiiing the three faces successively; the first face on the right with a torch in each hand i 
Ihe next face, with a knife {cuUrum) in the right hand, and a whip {jlagellum) in the lefi; th" 
third, with a key in the riyht hand atid a seriteni in the left. 

§ 41 a. (10) Minerva. Under the name rif Minerva amonor the Romans and 
of IlaXXaj and 'A^jyva among the Greeks, ancient fiction personified and deified 
the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter, 
sprung from his head. She is said first to have revealed herself near the lake 
Tritonis in Libya, from which circumstance she was called Tritonia. 

1. Some derive ibis epiibet, and tlie Greek Tptrojti/fta, from the word ^-pcw signi- 
fying head. 

2. Minerva is by some supposed to have been originally the Egvptian deity worshijied particu- 
larly at Sais under the name of Neith or Net ha Vari us etymnlogies of the Greek name ' kOr}vd 
have hi'en ijiveti ; among them is the conjecture which dt'rives it from the name of the Egyptian 
deity, by inverting Ihe order of the letters ; Netha {v)jOa), being thus charged, would form aOriv. 

§ 41 b. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts and 
sciences', which had a great influence on their civilizat on. She was regarded 
as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinning, the use of the olive, and 
various instrunnents of war; in short, of most works indicating superiftr intelli- 
gence or skill. Arachne's contest with her in working with the needle, and 
consequent despair and transformation are beautifully described by Ovid.^ 

1 Ov. Fastor. iii. 815. 2 Ov. Melam. vi. 5. 

§ 42. The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiv- 
ing its name from her. The splendid temple at that place dedicated to her was 
called Parfhenon,^ in reference to her virgin purity {rtap^ivo^). She had other 
temples, at Erythrae, Tegea^, and Suniuni,^ and several at Rome. Her principal 
festivals among the Greeks were the Panathenaea, the greater and the less, and 
among the Romans, Quinqiiatria, on each of which, games and contests were 
held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found on her images and 
on the Athenian coins.*' 

I Respeciing (lie Parlhenm, see P. I. § 107. Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3. \ 2A2. 5 243. I. 2 On the remains of ttie temple of Suniiim, 

cf. Am. Quart Rev. vol. vi. p. 234. 3 See the Attic coin given in Plate XL. fig. 5. 

The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens : — When Cecrops built 
a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and it was resolved in the assem- 
bly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities found out the most useful creature to man, 
should give the name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse 
issued from the earth. Minerva caused an oZ2i;e lo spring up. The latter was pronounced the 
more tiseful thing, and Minerva therefore eave the city her own name, 'AOni'ii. Dr. Clarke 
imagines that this story had its origin from the fact, tiiat the plains of Greece were once covered 
or nearly so with water, which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and 
thus a cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants. 

Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. Part II. sect. ii. ch. 12. 

§ 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a helmet, and 
the JE8:is^ or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's head, and with a spear 
and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet is generally ornamented 
with the figure of the owl, but presents various forms. 

1. In our Plate XI. fig. 6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory, 
with her right resting on a round shield bearing on it a Medusa; her spear leans on her 
right shoulder; the JEgis is seen on her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a siiiinof 
posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate 
20, the owl appears on one side and a cock on the other; the .^gis on her breast is 
here very distinct. 

The term mffis (diyig) signifies literally a froal-skin. Homer represents the agis as a part of 
.he aruior nf Jupiter, whom he distinguishes by the epithet diyioxos', yet he speaks of Minerva 
as using it (cf /Z. ii. 447-449. xvili. 204. x.\i. 400). 

2 u. The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were 
tniich celebrated; the fortner on account of the perfection of its workmanship (cf P. I. 
?> 107. P. IV. §§ 160, 161, 179); the latter on account of the superstitious confidence 
placed in it by the Trojans, Greeks, and Romans. 

The PaUadium was a statue of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other 
ihout three cubits high. It was said to h:ive fijleii from heaven into the citadel of Troy or 
Ilium before it wa.i completely b'uilt, and that the oracle of A[)oll() beinii consulted upon this oc- 
iirrencr, answered, that "t"he city should lie safe so lone hs thatimage remained within it." 
When the Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thnnght of the first consequence to obtain this 
image. Ulysses and Diomndes succeeded in L'etting it bv stealth {Vir. iF,n. ii 16"2). It was said 
til have been aftcrwvrds recovered from Diomedes by TEneas. carried to Italy, and finally lodgec 
'.» the tf-mple '^f Vesta. 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MARS. VENUS. 105 

3 u. Beside? the names Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was often called 
Ua^df.i H,'Epya-rii, and 'Epydvr),noXias; she is also \ermed Musica, Py lot is, and very 
w)ften TXavKwnis or Caesia. 

§ 44. (11) Ma-rs. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter and 
Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over rude ajid 
fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the 

credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. Notwithstanding the 

high idea which Homer gives of the strength and heroism of Mars, he reprc' 
sents him as taken prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diome- 
des; it was, however, by the help of Minerva^ Besides these occurrences, his 
amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune^ respecting the son of the 
latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all that is re- 
markable in his history. 

i Hem. 11. V 383, 855. "^^vcillod. iii. H.—Paicsan. i. 21. 

§ 45 a. He was most worshiped in Thrace, where probably the whole con- 
ception of such a god originated. He had however temples and priests in ra^st 
of the Grecian cities. 

" Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, and his worship 

was comparatively neglected It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; 

he seems to have been derived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlilve and barbarous 
tribe, rather than Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and 
probably was the same deity under another name." Tookes Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. 

§ 45 b. The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder 
and protector of their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated 
to him a large public place, the Campus Martins, and a peculiar order of priests, 
the Salii, who celebrated his festival wilh music and dancing in solemn pro- 
cessions. 

1. It was a special business o^ these priests to guard the ancilia, or sacred shields , 
respecting which see P. III. ^ 215.' — A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars by 
the Romans is still preserved ; see P. IV. ^114. 4. — To Mars was offered the sacrifice 
cai'ed Suovetaurilia ; a representation of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief, is 
give./ in our Plate XXIX. 

2. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for 
his .Serceness : the dog, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also offered to 
him on account of their greediness. 

§ 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly vigor, with a 
strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, rather than vehement oi 
passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes naked; 
sometimes in the attitude of marching, as Mars Gradivus, 

1. He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered with 
armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XI. fig. 7. 
Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch, drives the 
chariot over prostrate warriors ; such is the representation given in the Sup. Plate 10. 
Sometimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Dis- 
cord, Fear, 'I'error, and Fame. In the Sup. Plate 6, he appears as ready for marching ; 
with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield. 

2. Bellova, called by the Greeks 'Ei/uo), is soinetiines s^id to be the wife, sometimes the sister, 
and sometimes the daughter of .Mars. i^We had a temple at Rome, and before it was a pillar 
called Bellica, over which the herald threw a spear when war was proclaimed. 

3 u. Mars was called "Aprj; by the Greeks ; other names given to him are Odrysius, 
Strymonius, Enyalius, Thiirius, Quiri?ms, Ultor. 

§ 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, and the 
love awakened by it, was in eastern tiction expressed and personified in an 
imaginary goddess; she was called by the Romans Venus, and by the Greeks 
'A^s^obitri. According to the common story, she was born from the foam (oKppoj) 
of the sea; in Homer she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 
After her birth she came first to Cytherea, and thence to Cyprus. — Many of the 
gods sought her; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse. 

I u. She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis e.-pecially, although with un- 
requited passion ; the early death of the latter she bii'erly lamen ed. 

Otirf. Metam x. 50P, 717 ss. — Bion, Idyl on the death of Adonis. — See also Theiicritui^ I lyl xv. whicli is a beautilul Ultlu coa-.ef** 
reeotinia ng the story of Adonis ; the scene is laid in Alexandria, at the lime of a festival in his honor. 



10^ GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The story respocfinsr Adonis, the young favorite of Venns, is. that beinsr engagreil in hunting, 
i)f which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from a wild bfiar At this Venua 
was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina rt^stored him to Ijft^ on condition of \\\s spendinjr si.i 
nn)nths with Venus and six with herself It has been expl lined thus : idonis, or Jidmiai, wag 
an oriental title of the sun, signifying Lord; the hoar, su'inoseii to have killed him, was ttt.' em- 
blem of winter, during which the [troductive powets of nature being suspended, Venus was said 
to lametit the loss of Adonis tintil he was resiore-d asiain to life ; whence both the Syiian and 
Argive wotrien annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation." — Adonis is supposf.d 
to be the same deity with the Syrian Taminuz (cf Kzekiel viii. 14). — I.ucian ( De Syria Dea) gives 
.Rn account of the festival .^dovia, held in honor of him at Bybhis. Cf. P. 111. $ 77. 2. 

2 u. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to Venus the prize of 
beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the interests of the Trojans. 

§ 49. The most celebrated places pf her worship were Golgi, Paphos, and 
Aniathus. upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly consecrated lo h^r; 
Oythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situated near the sea, and in delight- 
ful regions. In Rome she was honored as the pretended mother of ^Eneas, the 
ancestor of the nation, although her worship was first formally introduced from 
Sicily, in the sixth century after the building of the city. 

1. At Hierapolis, in Syria, was a splendid temple in honor of Venus, under the name of ^s- 
iarie or Atergatis, the Ashtarolh of the Holy Scriptures. 
See l.ucian, De Syria Dea. — Cf. Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. — Citlmet, vol. iii. p. 372. ed. Chariest. 1813. — Class. Journal, No. liii. 

2u. The pigeon or dove, the myrtle, and the rose, were especially sacred to the 
goddess of love. 

3. The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were goats 
and swine, with libations of wine, inilk, and honey. 

Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the traditions re- 
specting the universal deluge; her rising frotn the sea being a type of the world emerging from 
the waves of the flood. — Bryant's .Mythology. — Bulweirs Mylh. Diet. 

§ 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the description and 
representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest idea of female beauty. 
The n jst distinguished antique statue of her is the famous Medicean Venus at 
Florence. 

Respecting this statue, see P. IV. § l?6. 5. 

1. Site is represented on coins and gems, and in the descriptions of the poets, m 
various w;iys ; sometimes she is clothed with a purple manile glittering with diamonds, 
her head crowned with myrtle and roses, riding in a chariot made oi ivory, finely 
carved, painted and gilded, and drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Someiimes she 
is attended with the Graces and several Cupids. At one lime she appears like a young 
virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds ,ihe shell in her 
hand. In our Plate X. fig. 6, she stands on a wave of the sea, supported by two Tri- 
tons, with two attendant Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, with long 
tresses, drawing a mantle around her. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (cf P. IV. 
J 222), she appears rising from the bosom of the waves and wringing her tresses on her 
shoulders. In some monuinents she holds one hand before her bosom and with the 
other presses her mantle close about her limbs ; Montfaucon gives a figure very similar 
to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. In the Sup. Plate 7. she is 
seen in a reclining posture, with Cupid resting his elbow on her lap, while the Graces 
are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In an ancient paint- 
ing, given in the Sup. Plate 8, she supports in her arms the dving Adonis. In some 
representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant 
niitror. The Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the 
other. In Elis she was painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. — She 
usually had a belt or girdle called Ceslus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to 
be folded. 

Heync, Uber die Vorstellunssarten der Venus, in his Antiqaar. Aufsatze.—Manso, Abhandl. Uber die Venus, In his Fersuche ilbcr 
'tnytholugische Ge^enstande. 

2 u. Various attributes were given to her, under the different characters of Venus 
Urania, JSlurina, Victrix. &c. She was likewise known under the names Erycina, 
Anadyamene i^dvairofitvr}), Paphia, Idalia. 

3. Her names and epithets were exceedingly numerous; as, Cypria, Y\av6inno;, Cythe- 
refi, <I>(Xo//';(^)7f, TfXeaffiyaiAO;, Verticordia, 'Eraipa, Acidalia, Lihertina, Suligenita, 
Oa\i<T(Tia, &c. 

§ 50. The son of this goddess, "Epto?, ^mtn; or Cupid, was her common 
companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to influence by his 
arrows. He is represented' with a bow and arrows", often with a burning torch 
m his hand. He was very frequently exhibited on ancient works of art, and 
IB agreat variety of forms'*. Often several Cupids appear in company. — 'Avrspwj, 



p. Tl. SUPERIOR GODS. VULCAN. 107 

AnUrns^ who is usually considered the god of mutual love, was originally t! t\ 
o(.d that avenges despised love. He is sometimes represented as^ wres'tlini^ 
with Cupid. "^ 

a See our Plate XI. fi;. 9. 6 CI. Muvso, as cited § 49. 1.— See PI ile X. fig. 6, and Sup Plates 7 and 9. 

1 u. The attachment of Cupid to Psyi-he is the chief incident in his history and fupma 
one of the most beautiful aUegories of antiquity. 

The allegory is found in Jijiuleivs (cf. P. V. j) 471. 2). For expositions, cf. Keiirhtleii, p 148, as" 
cited ^ 12.2. {!>). — Fsyclie is usually represented witli the wiiiirs of a Uutterflv ; as m the statue 
(Psyche in terror uf Venus) given in our Sup. Plate 8.— See also Plate XLVIl. tig. 5; cf. P. IV. $ 198. 

2. Hymenaeus was also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He presided 
over marriage. Fie was represented as of fair complexion, crowned with the amaracus 
or switt marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color, 

indicating the blushes ot a virgin. 

In tlie Sup. Plate 9, Hyincnsetis is seen leading by a chain Cupid and Psyche ; from an antique 
sculpture representing their iiuptiicls. 

§ 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agencies of the 
elements, as well as the apj)earances of the heavenly luminaries, excited as- 
tonishment and were deified. Traces of the worship of fire are found in the 
earliest times. The Egyptians had their god of fire, from whom the Greeks 
derived the worship of "H(|)at.(5T'oj, called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. 
Fable styles him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity 
his mother thrust him' from Olympus; or, according to another story, Jupiter 
hurled him out, because he attetnpted to help Juao when fastened by the golden 
chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence, and 
was, according to the later fictions^, lamed by his fall. 

» Hum. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. 2 FaZ. Flac. Argi n. ii. 87. 

§ 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that are con 
nected with the smelling and working of metals by means of fire, which ele- 
ment was considered as subject to him. His helpers and servants in such 
vi^orks were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and Gaia, whose residence also was 
in Lemnos, and of whom there are commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Ste- 
ropes, and Pyrakiaon. These are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops 
of a later period. 

1. The epithet Cyclopean is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly walls, in 
which large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted together. 

Cf. p. IV. § 231. 3. Frertt, L'Histoire des Cyclops, Mtm. Acad, hiscr. xxiij. 27. 

2u. Mount iEtna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one 
of the ,Eolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — VVorks requiring peculiar art ana 
ex'raordinary strength, especially when metals were employed as materials, were 
called by the poets Vatican's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces ot Phoebus', 
of Mars2, and Venus^; the golden chain of Juiio-*, the thunderbolts of Jupiter^, the 
crown of Ariadne^, the arms of Achilles'^, and of ^Eneas^, &c. 

« Ov. Metim. ii 1. 9 Slat. Theb. vii. 38 3 Claud. Epilhal Honor, et Mar. v 58. ■» Pausan. Alt. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17. 

s Oo. Metam. i. 2?8 « Ou. Fast. iii. 513. ■> Horn. 11. xviii. 468 8 {'iV^. .Sin. viii. 407. 

3. Vulcan is said to have formed, by reque.st of .lupiter, the first woman ; she was called Pan~ 
dura, becatise eacii of the gods gave her some present or acconiplishnient. 

In the Sup. Plate 4, is a composition designed to extiibit tlie gods assembled to bestow their gifts on the woman. — See Hesind, 
Works and Days, vs. 94. 

§ 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife Chans, O! 
Aglaia; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva had rejected him. 
Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of Mars and Venus. The Giants 
Cacus and Calculus were called his sons. — He was worshiped particularly in 
Lemnos, and the Vulcanian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon yEtna. 
At Rome the Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 
'K.oJkxita. 

1. A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice to him. — Tho.se 
who followed arts and employments requiring the use of fire, especially rendered honor 
and worship to Vulcan. " The lion, who in his roaring seems to dart fire from hi? 
mouth, was consecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were set apart to keep his temple." 

2 /i. Some of his names are the following: Lemn'ms, Midciber, Cyllopides {kvXXo- 
tocm), A?iiphigyels {(iix(t>iyvr)Ei<;). 

3 Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain, mentioned by Moses 



108 GREEK ANH ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

(Gen. iv. 22). Cf. Holwell, Myth. Diet. The ancients gavii various etymolopios )f tlie name , 

Servius says it was derived from volitavs, because tlie sparks of fire fly in ttie air; tiie account 
given by Varro is similar (see $ 54. 2). 

§ 54. ^"ulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, with hammei 
and j)incers in his hands; sitting more frequently than standing. His lameness 
is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it was in some ancient 
statues. 

1. Cicero, speaking of one of these statues, says \De Nat. Deor. i. 30), " We ad- 
mire that Vulcan of Athens, made by Alcamenes; he is standing, clothed, and appears 
lame without any deformity." — Some of the common representations of ihis god are 
seen in our Plate X. fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6. 

2. "That by Vulcan is understood ^re, the name itself discovers, if we believe Varro, who says 
that the word Vulcanus is derived from the force and violence of fire {Vulcaniiis, quasi Vnlica- 
nus, quod ifrnis per aerem volitai, vel a vi ac violentia iirnis); and therefore he is painted with a 

blue hat, a symbol of the celestial or elementaiy fire." (Tuokc.) "Vulcan was represented 

covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast was 
hairy, and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some represented him lame and deformed, 
holding a hammer in the air ready to strike ; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a 
thunderbolt on his anvil (aKfxMv). He appears on some monumenis with a long beard, disheveletl 
hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his head, with hammer and pincers in his hand." 
(Lemp.)— The medals of Lemnos usually bear a representation of Vulcan, with the legend Deo 
Vulcano, 

3, The representations of Vulcan show that the anvil of ancient times was formed like Ihe modern. It was placed on a large block 
of wood {aKfiddzTov); cf. Hanrn. OJ. viii. 274. yirg. Jf.w. vii. 629 — In early times, it was made nf bronze, as were also the 
hammer and pincers; cf. Horn. Od. iii. 433.— Smitfl's Diet. Ant. p. 512. 

§ 55. (14) Mrrcury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this god from the 
Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismtgisius is so celebrated in their early history. 
According to the Greek and Roman fables, 'Ep/t>75, Mercurius ox Mercury, was 
the son of Jupiter and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter 
in the cave Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by 
him among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their 
mother Pleione. 

The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dexterity, which 
he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in the most praiseworthy 
manner. This appears from the tricks related of him, and from the circum™ 
stance, that he was considered as the god not only of mercature, hut also of 
theft; although the latter, in early times was not viewed so much as a crime, 
as an evidence of power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus 
guarded by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul- 
can, &c. 

\u. By his flute the guardian of lo, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled to 
sleep. {Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means ot his success in his feats was his 
eloquence; this art was ascribed to hiin in a high degree. He invented also the lyre, 
attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and presented it to Apollo. In return 
Apollo gave him the celebrated wand {caducevs), the origin ot which is variously stated; 
its efficacy was potent in calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury carried 
this rod as the messenger of the gods, and einployed it to awaken dreams, and to con- 
duct the shades of the dead to the lower world ; tor he was called to offices and labors 
in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus. 

2 The caduce^is was ;i rod with wings at one end, and entwined by two serpents in the form 
of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod adorned with green leaves, and 
wilha skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed 
by the poels into serpents and wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have been 
given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings are 
the symbol of diligence : both necessary in the pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- 
cury patronized." 

On Ihe mythological character of Mercury, Class. Journal, xvi 224 — Bbttiger's Amalthea, i. 104. — Sbttiger's Vascngem, ii. 97. 

§ 56 a. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding his wand, 
almost always in moticm, either flying or rapidly marching, wearing a winged 
hat {petasus), and winged sandals [talaria). Sometimes he holds a purse in 
his hand, as the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in 
reference to his invention of the lyre. The cock was sacred to him, and appears 
sometimes a? an attribute in the images of Mercury. 

1. In our Plate XI. fig. 2, we have a common representation of Mercury flying; and 
another similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. — In the Sup. Plate 7, he is seen attending on 
lupiter and Juno, ^In our Plate XVIII. fig. 4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustration« 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 109 

named Door of Hell and Charon), he appears in his office of conductor of the shades 
of the dead. CfS>32a. 1. 

2u. The monuments called HermcB (see P. IV. §164) were originally statues ol 
Mercury. They had their origin when art was in a very imperfect slate, but were 
afterwards retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men. 

§ 56 b. The worship of Mercury was very connnfion among Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was 
a particular festival (^festum Mercatoruni) held for the expiation of merchants, 
in honor of Mercury. 

1. At this festival, held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow 
or a calf, and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with 
water, prayed to him to foi-give all their artful measures or falsehoods in pursuit of gain. 

2 II. 'I'he more common epithets applied to Mercury are Cyllenius, Atlantiades, Ales, 
AgorcBUS (dyopaio;), Caducifer. 

3. Other common epithets are ' ApysKpmrri;, SiaKrcop, and hSnyos ; he is also termed 
JdAtoj, crafty; Kcp'w'o;, as presiding over wealth; rpiKcipaXo;, because his statues were placed 
where three ways met. 

§ 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans^ worshiped the inventor 
and god of wine, under the name of Bacchus, Hdxxoi; the former also called 
him Atovvao^. In the fictions of both, he was the son of Jupiter and Seme le, 
a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to her request, Jupiter appeared to her in 
his full majesty and divinity, the fiery splendor of which caused her death. ^ 
Jupiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet bom, and carried him in his own 
thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some etymolo- 
gists, the poets called him 6t^i;pajUj3oj, as having been twice born; a name 
whi-ch was afterwards given to the irregular hyrnns^ sung at his festivals. 

I Oo Mel. iii 260. '^ Cf. P. V. § 22. P. lii. § 77. 3. 

§ 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and related a multi- 
tude of achievements as performed by him. Especially was he celebrated for 
his advancement of morals, legislation, and commerce; for the culture of the 
vine and the rearing of bees ; and for his military expeditions and success, 
particularly in India. He was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle- 
worker, except in Scythia. 

1 II. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king ol 
Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a 
compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched. — Some 
of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into dol- 
phins^; his residence upon the island Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by 
'I'heseus, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed hei 
crown among the stars^; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele 
back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone. 

I Ooid. Melam. xi. S5. ■» Met. iii. 6:0. 3 Fast. iii. 4.59. 

2. Bacchus is also said to have traveled into India with an army composed of men and women 
The achievements of different personages are doubtless ascribed to him. Diodorus Siculus says 
that there were three who bore this name. Cicero says there were five. 

3 u. He is called by various names ; Lyffius, Thyoneus. Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus. 
Thriambus, Thyrsiger (cf Ov. Met. iv. 11), Liber, Bimater, &c. 

§ 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early m tne East, probablj 
in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced in the Grecian or 
Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who refused to participate in it, 
were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, foi 
the same reason, were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cith^ron, 
Naxos, and Alea in Arcadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of 
Bacchus. — The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. 
Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because they are particularly 
injurious to the vine, 

1. The Oscophoria, Epilcenia, Apaticria, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as 
festivals of this god. . _ 

2 7c. The most eminent of his festivals were the Trie! erica and the Dionijsia (."ee P. 
in. § 77. 3), in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra- 
tions at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finallv on that accot'.ul 
abolished (cf Liv. xxxix. 8, ss.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 'jGS. 

On the worship of Bacchus, see Frertt, Le Quite de Bacchus, Mem. Acad. [user. vol. xxiii. p. H2.—0. P. Creuzer. Dioiiv-ui. f 



110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 

comment. Acad, de Rerum Bac-hic nriginibiis et causis. HeidJb. IS09. 4 Rolle, Recherches sur le Culle de Bacchus. Pans, 
3 vols. 8. 

3. In several points the story and worship nf IJacchiis resemble those of the Esyptian Osiris 
There is also ihoiighl to be a sirikiiig res(-niblance belvveeii Bacchus and the !;cliiva of India (cf. 

Rkiidr, as cited $ 13~). Sir fVm. Jtmet; (as cited $ 25. 4), considers Baichus and the Hindoo i^aiwa 

to be the same. "The first poet of the Hindoos," says he, "was the great Vuimic, and his Ha- 
mayan is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity of ar:ii<in, mafrnifirence of imagery, 
and elegance of style, far surpasses the learned and elaborate work of Nonnns entitled JJiovij- 
siaea (cf. P. V. $ 76), half of which, or twenty-fonr books, 1 perused willi great eagerness when 
I was very young, and should have traveled to the conclusion of it, if oilier pursuits had not 
engaged me. I shall never have leisure to compare the JHovysiacks with the Ruviayav, but am 
confident thai an accurate comparison of the two poems would prove Viujnjsus and Rama to have 
been the same person." 

Cf. Constayit, De ia Religion, vol, ii. — Foss, Aat'isymboWk.— Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. 

4. It is worthy of remark, that ihe abominations of the Dionysiac festivals are to this day practiced at the temple of Jusrgernaut ia 
Hindostan. Ttiis god has two annual fesiivals. Al the one called Ihe car-feslival his image, "a block of wo(j(I, having a frightful 
visage painted black, with a dis'eiided njouth of a blooily color,"' is brought out of the temple in gorgeous array and placed on a s'u- 
pemious car rising high like a tower, which rests on low wheels and is drawn by the crowd of vutarics, attended with flags and 
banners, amid the sound of musical instruments and the shouts of an immense multitude of pilgrinss assembled from various and 
distant regions. In our Plate XIII a. is a represerilation of this ceremony : the horses, which appear attached to the car, are wooden. 
The car is covered wiih indecent figures painted all over it At intervals the car is stopped, and Ihe priests and boys connected with 
the temple render worship by obscene songs and lascivious actions to please the god. as they say, and cause him !o move. — See Ward, 
View cf the Religion, &c. of Ihe Hindoos. 

§ 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more dignified than 
those with which the later artists were accustomed to deo^rade him. By' the 
poets and artists of antiquity he was exhihited as a handsome agreeahle boy, 
just on the border of youth, with a form more resembling a female, than that 
of Mercury or Apollo, and with a joyful look. Of no other god have we a greater 
number or variety of representations, in statues, bas-reliefs, and gems, than of 
Bacchus with his train, Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. 

1. .Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with 
swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, having 
in his hand a Ihynua, an iron-headed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine leaves ; as in 
our Plate K. fi'/. 8, where he appears also as a handsome youth, holding a wine-cup in 
one hand, and a'.te:nded by a panther. In the Sup. Plate 15, he is a youth holding the 
thyrsurt and leaning upon a column, with a tiger at his feet. Sometimes he appears an 
infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of grapes with a horn. Sometimes he is on the 
shoulders of Pan, or in the arms of Silenus. On the celebrated gem (cf P. IV. '5i 211) 
which is given in oiar Plate XLVIII., he appears a bloated young man, borne by Satyrs 
and also attended by Cupids and Bacchanals. Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn 
by tigers, leopards, or panthers, ourrounded by his retinue of Satyrs .and Bacchae, and 
followed by old Silenus on an oas. 

For various other representations, see Monifaucon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. Plates 142-167. 

2. In our Plate XLVIII. we have also a representation nf Silenus, as given from an antique by 
Montfaucon ; recumbent on the hide of a panther, with one hand resting on a skin full of wine, 
and the other on an inverted goblet. — An image of s^ilenus is mentioned by Pliny (Hist. J^at. 
xxxvi. 5), as existing in the marble quarry of Paros, said to be the work of nature. There is 
now in the same quarry a curious bas-relief, of which the image of Silenus forms a part. Dr. 
Clarke supposes this image to have been a Insus vatuiw, and the oiher pieces now in the bas- 
relief to have been added to it by sculpture. "It represents a festival of Silenus. The demigod 
IS figured in the up()er part of it as a corpulent drunkard, with ass's ears, accompanied by laugh- 
ing satyrs and dancing girls. A female figure is represenied sitting with a fox sleeping in her 
lap. A warrior is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XXII. fig. w and «]. 
There are twenty-nine figures j and below is tliis inscription : AAAMAX OaPTEHS IS YM*^A12." 

§ 61. ^^16) Ceres. However useful the planting f the vine might be, agri- 
culture in general was much more so, and formed one of the earliest and most 
common pursuits of men. The observation of its importance and of the pro- 
ductiveness of nature occasioned the conception of a particular divinity, to 
whom its discovery and improvement were ascribed. The usual name for this 
divinity was A>7^j;r>jp among the Greeks, and Ceres with the Romans. She 
was considered as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a 
daufrhtHr of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated 
in a fertile region of Sicily. 

In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, and to 
instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. 'I'o her is ascribed also the 
establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. Afterwards she im- 
parted her favors to other, lands, and the people of Attica particularly boasted 
0^ her protection, and her instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough. 
She associated Triutolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent 



PLATE XIII a. 




Ill 



112 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

nim over the earth, to teach husbandr}', and thereby raised him te the rank of 
a god. 

See Homer, Hymn to Ceres.— Ou/rf, fast. iv. 507-562. Metam. v. 612-631. 

§ 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by Pluto has 
been already mentioned (§ 32 w). Ceres sought for her with a burning torch 
everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture and good 
morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, sup- 
plicated Jupiter for her deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on con- 
dition that Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she 
had just tasted of the pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and 
liberty to return to this world only for half the year. 

Ooirf, Metam. iv. bb2.—Claudian, De Raptu Proserpinae. Of. P. V. § 386. 

1 u. To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circumstances; her 
changing herself into a horse and into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Nep- 
tune ; her transtbrmation ot Lyncus into a lynx on account ot his perfidy^ ; and her 
punishment of Erysichihon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him 
with insatiable hunger^, .so that he devoured at last his own limbs. 

J Oo Met. V. 649. 5 lb viii, 738.— Cai/im. Hymn, in Cer.. v. 29.— See Emesti's Excursus, in bis ed. of Callimachus (cited 

P. V. § 70. 2). vol. i. p. 262. 

2 u. Ceres bore several names and epithets, as A^jw, OeajAOipdpog , StroJ ; and Eleusinia, 
Erin7iys, &c. 

3. The name Arjufjrrjp is by some derived from <5*7 for yn and i^r'iTrjp, signifymg mother- 
earth. 

See Knighfs Enquiry into the symbol. Lang. &c. Class. Journ, 

§ 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the ©jcf^iio^opta, 
which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially in Athens, in honor 
of her as having taught the use of laws. Still more celebrated, however, were 
the Eleusinian Mysteries^ which were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were 
of two sorts, the greater and the less, the latter held annually, the former only 
every fifth year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with 
several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the llpojypoffia, and the 'Axwa» 
the Cerealia and the Ambarvalia. 

On the EUuiinian Mysteries, see P. III. § 77. 4. P. IV. § 4'. — Warhurton. in his Divine Legation of Mmes. — J. Meursii, Eled 
8inia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. i.—Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. et crit. sur les Mysleres (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8.- 
Ouwaroff, Essai sur les mysteres d'Eleusis. St. Petersb. 1815. 8.—Sou^ainville, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. 93.— Class. Journ 
xiii. 399. x\v. 165. xv. n7. 

On the Thesrnophoria, see Dutheil, as cited P V. § 65 3, On the Amharvalia, cf P. III. § 219. 

1. Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, and 
the burning of a fox {vulpium combustio). " A fox was burnt to death at her sacred 
rites, with torches tied round it; because a fox wrapt round with stubble and hay set on 
fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn of the people of Carseoli, a 
town of the ^qui, as the foxes of Samson did the standing corn of the Philistines." 

Cf Ovid, Fast. iv. 681. — Judges xv. 4. — Classical Journal, vi. 325. 

2. The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the Mysteries were celebrated, 
were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He found also a fragment of a colossal 
statue of the goddess among; the niidderitig vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With 
great exertion that traveler procured the removal of the statue, in order to its being transported 
to England. 

See C/arfce's Travels, Pari ii. sect. 2. ch. iS.—Lond. Qiiarl. Rev. xvii. 202. 

§ 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are ears of 
corn, and the poppy, her usual ornainent. She is often exhibited with a torch 
in her hand, to signify her search after Proserpine. 

In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady with a garland on her 
head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and a cluster of poppies and 
ears of corn in the other. I'bus she appears in our Plate XL fig. 5, and in tlie Sup. 
Plate 15. She also appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox, 
carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn 
bv winged dragons. Her associate Triptolemus also appears occupying her chariot 
\0i. Met. V. CAG). 

§ 65. (17) Vesta. Theideasconceivedin the Greek and Roman fables respect- 
ing the earth as a person and goddess were exceedingly numerous and various. 
Besides Gaia, Titgea or Tellus, who represented the earth taken in a general 
sense thev inagfined Cvbele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated : 



p. II. INFERIOR GODS. otELUS. llj 

Ceres more particularly sicrnified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of 
Vesta or 'Eorta was employed to represent the earth as warmed by interna] 
heat. The latter g-oddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness, 
heing supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called the 
daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men the use of fire. 

1 u. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy {Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and 
granred to her the (irst oblations in all sacrifices. 

2. She is sometimes termed V^esia the younger,'to distinguish her from Cybele (^19), 
who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesa the younger is the same wiih ]g?iis or fire. 

§ GG. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to A^esta, and for 
this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front of all houses. 
The same was done in the buildings termed ITprrai'fta, which were usually 
found in the Greek cities near their center; that at Athens (P. I. § 115) was 
the most famous. More rarely were temples raised for her. In her temple at 
Rome the celebrated Palladium was supposed to be kept. 

The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any image 
of the goddess. It still exists. Cf. P. I. '?> 60. 

§ 67 a. She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, hearing in her 

hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a priestess of 

Vesta that is thus represented. 

In Plate XI. fig. 10, from a medal given by Momfaucon, we have snch a representation. Ifi 
the Sup. Plate 3. Vesta is seen as re^jreseiited in a heautifnl statne ineniloned by Montfancon 
(Vol. i. p. 64). — Vesta is sometimes exhibited holding in one hand a' javelin or a Palladium; 
sometimes also with a drutn in one hand and an image of Victory in the other. 

$ 67 u. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those among the Ro- 
mans under the name of Vesiales, the vestal virgins, were much more celebrated; the 
mother of Romulus having belonged to the order, although their first regular institution 
is ascribed to Numa. (Cf P. III. § 218.) '1 heir principal duty \\as to watch and keep 
alive the sacred fire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. '^^ 43). Their rigid seclusion was 
rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sacredness was attached to then" persons. 

1. The extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sudden and terrible disasters, 
and if it ever happened, all business was at once interrupted until expiation had been made wiiti 
great ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely [)imished. The fire wat 
every year renewed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays of the 
snn. 

2. In our Plate XXVIII. is a representation of a priestess of Vesta, holding a pan of firt In 
the same Plate is seen a Vestal holding the crihrum or sieve ; from a statue in honor of the Ves- 
tal Tuccia, who is said to have vindicated her innocence by bringing water in a sieve from the 
Tiber. Cf. Val. Max. viii. 2. 

On Vesta and the Vestals; Livy, i. 20. — Plutarch, Life of Nunn. — Class. Juwn. xv. 123,257. xvi. 32.— Nadal, Histoire des 
Vestales, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 161, 227. — L'pshis, de Vesta, in his fVorks,— Dupuy, La nianiere Uonl let 
aDciens rzllumoient le/ew sacre, &c. in the Mem. Acad. I user. xxxv. p. 395. 



II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods. 

% 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Tvferior go(i,» 
are Coelus or 'O 'pai/dj ; Sol or "HX(0(, ; Luna or Y.s\rvrj\ Aurora or Tito;; Nox or Ni'i(; 
Iris, "Ipi?; i^olus or AioAo? ; Pan, Y\av, Latona or Ar/r'i; Themis or Qri)ni; \ jf^scula- 
plus or 'Ao-/c/\;777(d; ; Plutus or llXo?™; ; Fortuha ovTvxri; and Fama ar^vixn; which 
were all common to the Greeks and Romans Rut to this class arc also to he referred 
several divinities, which were peculiar to the Greeks as distinguished trom the Romans; 
and also several, which were peculiar to the Romans as distingui>hed from the Greeks 

§ 69. (1) Coelus. Althotigh this god was considered as one of the most 
ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was attached to hia 
worship either among the Greeks or Romans. Kis wife was th;^ goddess of the 
earth, Titeea or Gaia; their offspring were thp Titans,, the Cyr.'nps, and the ('en- 
timnni. Through fear that these sons would deprive him. of his kingdom, he 
precipitated them all to Tartarus, whence thny were liberated, however, by the 
aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Furie« 
were called daughters of Uranus, or Coelus. 

%10u. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation in the histor« 



114 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

of early nations. According to the account of Diodonis', Uranus v/ould seem to navi» 
been a king of the Ailantides^, the founder of their civiliza'ion, and the author of many 
useful inventions. Among other things he was a dihgent observer of ihe heavenly 
bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many oi their changes. Admiration 
of such knowledge might lead to his deifica ion. Perhaps it might occasion the use of his 
name ('O 'pa/dg) to signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap- 
pears to have been very ancient. 

> See Diod. Sic. iii 56. v. 44. ^ The Atlaiitides were a people of Africa, living near Mt. Atlas. 

§ 71. (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans w^orshiped Apollo as the 
god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named him Phcehus, 
yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo espe- 
cially in the earlier fables, under the literal name applied to designate the sun, 
viz. Sol or "Hxt-oj. These words, therefore, were employed to express not only 
the actual body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate 
and personal existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is 
called the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his 
sisters. Many circumstances, which are mentioned as pertaining to him, are 
also related of Phoebus or Apollo, when considered as the god of the sun. 

Si e Ovid, Me'amnr[)h. ii. 

§ 72 a. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of the first and 

most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that the worship of this god 

was early introduced into Greece. Many temples were consecrated to Helius. 

The island Rhodes in particular was sacred to him, where was erected his 

celebrated colossal statue. Among the Romans his worship was organized 

with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who had been a priest of the same 

^od in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome. 

Of his splendid temple at Heliopnlis or Biialbec in >*yria, said to iiave been erected iiy Atitoni- 
nus Pins, interesting remains still exist. Cf. P. I. $ 166. 

§ 72 6. Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile, form, entirely 
clothed, and having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the Horae, 
and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by four horses, 
which bear distinct names. 

1. Helius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man 
crowned with rays ; a specimen is seen in our Plate XIV. tig. 1 — A view of the colossal 
s'atue of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. This was reckoned among 
the seven wonders. 

2 The seven wonders of the world were, 1. The statue of the Sun at Rhodes, 70 cubits high, placed 
across the harbor so that a large vessel coulfl sail between its legs; 2. The Mausoleuin, !)r sepulchre 
of Mausohis, kingof Caria, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful 
columns(P.lII.^l87.);3. The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias (cf P. IV. ^ 179); 4. The tem- 
ple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in height, with a splendid image of the goddess ; 
5. The whIIs of Babylon built by Semiramis, ^0 or 80 teet wide, and 60 miles in circuit (Rollings 
Anc. Hist. bk. iii. ch. 1); 6. The pyramids of Egypt; 7. The palace of Cyrus. 

§ 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and was 
called Xe%yivri by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent, and story from 
Diana or '" Aptrfxt^, who was, however, taken as goddess of the moon. To 
Luna was ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. Pandia was 
said to be a daughter of Luna and Jupiter or Saturn*. In common with her 
brother H^^lius, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlan- 
tides. 

a Cf. Haner, Hynni to Luna. 

1 ft Both the (ireeks and Romans consecrated appropriare temples to her, although 
the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more prevalent among 
them. She was represented like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot 
through the skies, wi h the stars as her attendants. 

2. She is repre^enied on coins by the bust of a fair young woman with a crescent on 
her head: as seen in Plate XIV. fig. 3. 

§ 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was the goddess 
of the morning or day-dawn; styled by the Greeks 'Kw? or 'Huf'pa; by the 
Romans Jurora. By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant 
Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus were her prin- 
"ioal lovers, and Lucifer and Memnon her most distino-uished sons. Tiie latter 



p. II. INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. IRIS. 115 

is memorable for the honors paid to him in E^ypt, and for his famous vocal 
statue at Thebes. 

1. The statue of Memnon is supposed to be one of those existing at the present day among the 
ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medinet Abou. A part of the body of it is said 
to be now in the British Museum. It is called by the Arabians Salamat, the statue which bids 
good tnornitig, a name evidently originating in a belief of the ancient atrd common tradition ; 
which was, that this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shone upon it. The 
statue is covered with inscriptions by p'^rsons declaring that they had heard its voice at the 
rising of the sun. — Mr. IVilkivson slates, from experiment actually made by himself, that if a per- 
son in the lap of this colossus, which is in a sitting posture, give it a blnw with a hammer, it will 
cause a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of brass. 

See J. G. Wilkinson, on the contrivance by which the statue (if Memnon was made vocal ; in the Transactiims of the Royau 
Society of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. IS34. — M. Letroiine, Inscriptions Greciues et Latines du Colossus de Menjnon, &c., in sami 
Transactions, vol. iii. Lond. ISST.—^Amm: Quart. Revieio, No. ix. 

2 ?i. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, although she seized 
and bore him away from his beloved Procris, whom, after his return to her, he had the 
misfortune to kill through an accident occasioned by her jealousy. — The early death 
of a youth was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theft by Aurora 

(Uliipa; oprrayii). 
On the story of Cephalus, see Ovid, Melam. vii. 661, 7C3. 

§ 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and of the 
day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the latter among the 
Greeks, '^H/.iipa. By the poets she is represented as a beautiful young woman, 
whose chariot was drawn by white or light red horses, and who opened the 
portals of the Sun with rosy fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet 

. She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe {kpoko-sttXo;), in a rose- 
colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was called the mother 
of the stars and of the winds. 

In the Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accom- 
panied by the Hours, and a flying Cupid with a torch in his hand. 

§ 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and placed among 
the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of this early origin she is 
called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of gods and men. Generally, how 
ever, she is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage; and in such a 
sense, sleep, death, dreams, the furies, &c. are called her children. 

1 f. A black cock was the offering commonly presented to her. A black sheep was 
also offered to her as mother of the Furies. 

2 ?i. According to the descriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she 
is exhibited as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled 
with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses whh 
a retinue of stars. 

3. Pausanias describes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and 
a black child in her left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears in our Plate 
XXXVI. She has also been described as a woman with her face veiled in black, 
crowned with poppies, and in a chariot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of Plate 
-XIV., drawn from an ancient engraved gem, she holds a veil over her head, and three 
stars appear above it. In plate XLI. she makes a more splendid appearance, with a 
large spangled veil, and a torch inverted; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated 
manuscript. 

§ 77. (6) Iris, By the name of ~Iptj was designated among the Greeks the 
rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her father was said to be 
Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the daughters of Oceanus. Her 
residence was near the throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messengci 
to the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she was Jupiter't^ 
messenger, and was employed even by oiher deities. 

1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent on errands of striJo 
and discord ; whence some have thought her name derived from ipij, strife. Others 
derive it from ttpM, to speak or declare- 

2u. She had also sometimes in reference to dying females aa office, which was. 
usually assigned to Proserpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolut'on. 
Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704. The rainbow was the path by which she descended froDi 
Olympus and returned thither. 

3. She is represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often 
appears sitting behind Juno as waiting to execute her commands. In the Sup. Plaif- 
11 



116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

20, she appears descending on a cloud. In the Sup. Plate 7, she is seen with Mercury 
and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno. 

§ 78. (7) ^olus. Under the name of ^olus both Greeks and Romans 
worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was called the son of 
Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of 
the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the winds, which 
had previously been formed into mythical persons, and were known by the 
naiTies Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered 
the servants of iEolus. 

1 u. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the Mediterranean sea, and 
let them loose only to further his own designs or those of others, in awakening storms, 
hurricanes and floods. (Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1. — Virfr. iEn. i. 52.) He is usually de- 
scribed by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to strangers. 

2. The name JEolus is thought to have come from aiuXos, changeable. — ^The island 
where iEolus is said to have reigned was Strongyle (.y^rpoyyvXri), so called on account oi 
Its round figure, the modern Siroinholi. 

See Heyne, Exeurs. ad .ffin. i. 51.— Cf. Pliny, N. H. iii. 8. 

3. In the Sup. Plnte IP, are two engravings marked as representations of .^oliis. In one, a 
vigorous man supporting liimself in the air by wings is blowing into a shell trumpet like a Triton, 
while his short mantle is waving in the wind ; this is from a bas-relief on an altar, found near 
Nettuno in Italy, with the inscription .^ra Ventoram ; and it probably is merely the representa- 
tion of one of the winds, perhaps Eurus; cf $ lOSb — In the other, we have a fragment o'f a 
Bquare stone, which originally contained in bas-relief a representation of the circle of the Zodiac 
with its twelve signs, which were sculptured wiihin the circle ; on the outer edge of the circle 
appear the busts of .Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus ; in the corner is the bust of a man with 
wings on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeks, which probably represents one of the four 
principal winds, the otiier corners of the piece having had each a wind represented in it. 

See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. vol, i. plate ccxxiv. 

§ 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, was Pan, 
whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god of shepherds and 
herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever pertained to rural affairs. His 
worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He was said to be the son 
of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite 
residence was in the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to 
Syrinx, who was changed into a reed', he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him into his 
unlucky contest with Apollo^. He also invented a war-trumpet, whose sound 
was terrific to the foe; a circumstance^ which gave rise to the phrase, jo«7itc 
fear or terror {rtavixov 8111x0). 

» Ou. Metatri. i. 6S2. 2 /t. x. 146. 3 Pausan. Phoc. c. 23. 

§ 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the form of a 
goat, and under the name of Mendes^ In Greece, Arcadia was especially 
sacred to him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycaeus. 
His festivals, called Av:xata by the Greeks, were introduced by Evander among 
the Romans, and by them called Lupercalia^. Goats, honey, and milk were 
the usual offerings to Pan. 

« Htrod. ii. 46. 2 Ov. Fast. ii. 31, 267. 

1 u. His Greek name IIui', signifying the whole or all, had reference to the circum- 
stance thai he was considered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, 
it was derived from Traw {to feed), and referred to his patronage of shepherds and their 
flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, Moenahus, and Lycaeus. 

• 2. "The figure of Pan (cf Sil Ital. xiii. 326) is a rude symlml of the universe, and he appears 
to have been oritrinally a personification of the jSviina JVUivdi, or terrestrial soul, by which some 
ancient nations believed that the entire universe was directed." — This god does not appear in 
Ihe poems of Homer or Hesiod. 

.B u. His image was generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a 
Batyr, with ears sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body 
covered with hair or spotted, and the feet and legs of a goat. 

4. Such is his image in Plate XIV. fig. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has 
in one hand a crooked staff and in the other a pipe of reeds, and an amphora lies beside 
him. If some representations, his head was crowned with pine, which was sacred 
to him. ' 

§8 . (9) Latnna. She was called A>/rw by the Greeks, and held a distin- 

jruished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this account was often 

atiked among the superior deities. She was daughter of Cceus or Polus and 



p. II. INFERIOR GODS. THEMIS. ^SCULAPIUS. 117 

Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's love. The jealousy and anger of 
Juno was excited against her, and she adjured the iroddess of earth to allow 
Latona no place to bring forth her offspring. Neptune, however, gi-anted the 
island Delos for the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to 
Lycia, where' she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some 
peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. — !Still more 
severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe^, a daughter of Tantalus and 
wife of Amphion king of 'I'hebes. Niobe -slighted the divinity of Latona, and 
the latter engaged both her children, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her; they, by 
their arrows, slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief 
was changred into stone. 

1 Ov. Metani. vi. 335. ^ Ov. Metam. xi. 321. See also § 38. 

§ 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the island Delos, 
at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a festival was sacred 
to her, called 'Ex8vGia. 

1 u. Latona is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible thai 
her name originated in this idea, derived from Xfyfw, to Le conceaUd, as naiure was 
buried in profound darkness beture the birth of the ^^un and Moon or Apollo and Diana. 

2. She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, so 
painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. 

§83. (10) Thentis. The goddess of justice (©a^t?) was one of the most 
celebrated of the Tilanides, or daughters of Ur^inus and Titsea. To her is 
ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first introduction of saciifices 
into Greece. She had by Jupiter three daughters, Aixr^, "F.wo/.ua, and 'Kipr.vrp 
which were commonly called the Horss ('dpat), who are represented by the 
poets in various lights, but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division 
and distribution of time (§ 105). Astraea also was by some called a daughter 
of Themis. 

1 u. Astr{Ea was likewise a goddess of justice, or rather of property; and, according 
to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last of the divinities to quif the earth. She 
was placed among the constellations ot the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently 
called Erigone. 

2. AstfcPa, who accordina; to some was rlie daughter of Titan and Aurora, was represented 
(cf. Ji'd. Gell. Noct. An. xiv. 4) as a virgin with a stern countenance, holding in one hand a pair 
of hulances, and in the other a sword or scepler or a long rod or spear; ihus she appears in the 
S»p. Plate 18, drawn from an engraved gem. 

3 u. There was still another goddess. Nemesis., 'Nqitai';, who was supposed to judge 
respecting moral actions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was 
called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first erected a temple 
to her, and also Rhamnusia from having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 

4. At her temple in Rhamnus was a large and beautiful statue, ranked among the best works 
of Phidias — In Plate XXXVI. are two representations of Nemesis, from ancient gems ; in eacN 
the wheel ajipears at her feet; in one she has wines, and holds in one hand a branch with a 
ribin attached ; in the other representation she holds a rod or scepler. 

See //e'rfer's Zerstreuten Blillern, riamnil. 2. p. 213. 

§ 84. (II) JEscxdapius. In proportion as men in the early ages were igno 
rant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there was the greater ad- 
miration of those who were distinguished in the art of healing, and the greater 
readiness to deify them. Hence the deification of ^Esculapius, who was 
viewed as the god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph 
Coronis^ Hygeia, the goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two 
celebrated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and 
Fodalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. yEs- 
culapius was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the request of Pluto. His 
most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaurus^, where he was worshiped 
under the form of a serpent. 

1 Ov. Metarii. ii. 591. '2 Ov Mel. xv 622. 

1. The ruins of the temple at Epidaurus are still visible at the place now called .fern, pro- 
nounced Yero, a corruption perhajis of 'Xtnov (.«icni crdes). There weie at this ancient seal of 
tne god of health medical springs and loells, which may yel be traced 

darnels Travels, part ii. sect. 2. cti w. — F^trtl. Culie rendu a .'Eiculajiius, in tliC Mem. Acad. Imcr. xxi. 28. 

2u. The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, eithe 
free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence atwl forosiglit. 



lis GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

3. In Plate XIV. fig. 6, ^scuZajDnts holds in one hand a round vase or pulera, from w.iich a 
serpent is eating. In the Sup. Plate 21, he is seen as presented in an ancient statue delineated 
in Montfaucon ; on his left is the trunk of a tree, around which the serpent winds ; on his right 
stands Telesphorus, who was said to be a son of ACsculapius, and was considered as the god of 
convalescents; Telesphorus appears here, as in all representations of him, in a robe covering 
his arms and whfile body, with a hood upon his head. jEsculapius and Telesphorus appear to- 
gether thus on a coin of Caracalla. 

4. Hygeia may be considered as the same with the Roman goddess of health, Salus. 
The Romans honored Salus with a temple and festivals. One of the city-gates, being 
near her temple, was called Porta Salutaris. She was represented with a bowl in 
Iter right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and 
lifting his head upon it. 

In Sup. Plate 21, we have a representation of Hygeia from a beautiful statue ; she sits on a 
rock, with one hand raised and holding a scepter, and the other holding a bowl, towards wnich 
a large serpent is advancing his head over her lap. 

§ 85. (12) Plutus, The god of riches, Wkovto^, was probably of allegorical 

rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek is but the common term 

for wealth. His father, according to the fable, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by 

Electra, and his mother was Ceres, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in 

Crete. Jupiter, as it was allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and 

his usual residence was low beneath the earth. — By some Plutus is considered 

as the same personage as Pluto, ruler of the world of spirits, and this may 

have been the case. 

1 M. Tt is not known by what figure he was visibly represented. Pansanias barely 
remarks, that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant 
in the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held him as an infant 
in her arms. 

2. " Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, be- 
cause large estates come slowly. He is fearful and liniorous, because rich men watch 
their treasures with a great deal of \ear and care." 

§ 86. (13) Fortune, Of a like allegorical character was the goddess of i^or- 
tune, Tvxyif FortunOy to whom was ascribed the distribution and the superin- 
tendence of prosperity and adversity in general. Among the Greeks she had 
temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna; and in Italy, before the building of 
Rome, she was honored at Antium, and especially at Praeneste. The Romans 
made her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets ori- 
ginating from different occasions; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda, 
Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c. 

1 u. In the temple at Antium were two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as 
oracles, and gave answer by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. 
Similar divinations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her temple was one of the 
richest and most celebrated. 

See Horace. Odes, 1. i. od. 35. (Ad Fortunam).— Of. P. HI. § 222. 

2. " The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient monuments with a horn of 
plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is blindfolded, and generally holds a 
wheel in her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy. Sometiines she appears with 
wings, and treads upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands." 

Her image in Plate XIV. fig. 9, is taken from an Imperial coin; in her left hand is a horn of 
plenty ; her right rests upon a rudder ; a wheel is behind her. In the Sup. Plate 18, she appears 
without the wheel, with the images of the sun and moon on her head. 

§ 87. (14) Fame, The goddess styled ^r^fxyl, or Fama, was also of allego- 
rical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of Earth, who gave birth 
to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of her sons, the Giants; in order 
that she might divulge universally the scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the 
other gods. She had a place in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a 
temple at Athens. She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both 
good and bad, 

1 a. The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, always flying about, 
accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity. 

■ Of. FiVj? JEn. IT. 173.— Ou. Met. xii. '69.— Stat. Theb iii. 426. 

2. In the Sup. Plate 18, is a re;iresenlation of Fame with her wings e.-^tended as just ready lo 
flv, with her finger pointing "upwards. 

^ 88. (15) D^T'ies peculiar to the Greeks. Athough generally the same deities were 
common to the Greeks and Romans, each nation had some peculiar to itself These 
must be included in the class of Inferior Gods- Those peculiar to the Greeks were 



P II. INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 119 

less numerous and important than those pecuh'ar to the Romans ; and nearly all ofthetn 
may be reduced under one or other of the four following divisions. 

1. Places, rivers, mountains, &c.. personified. Almost every important city was 
converted into a goddess, whose image was placed on its coins. Almost every river and 
stream also was made into a god, of whom some tabulous tale was related; tliUs Ah 
pheics is said to have pursued the nymph Arethusa from Greece to Sicily. 

2. Eminent personages deified. The most important of the deities belonging to this 
division would come under the class denominated Heroes ; although many of them are 
seldom if ever thus classed, as Orpheus, Homer, 'I'rophonius, dtc. ; besides many of 
later times. 

3. Virtues and vices personified. The Greeks did not carry such personifications so 
far as the Romans; yet imaginary deities were thus formed, and altars were erected to 
them in Athens and other cities. Some deified among the Greeks are not distinctly 
named among the Romans ; e. g. Cha?ice, 'Avroixaria ; Voracity, 'A6cjj<payia ; Lust^ 
under the name of Korurro), Colytto, a notorious prostitute. 

4. Particular pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to some guardian spirit. Thus, 
"Epyavrt designated a goddess of weaving, distinct from Minerva, to whom this term is 
applied. '¥,vvui, the goddess of war, nearly corresponded to the Roman Bellona ; and 
Kw/;(oj, the god oi feasting, and Mw/zoj, the god oi jesting, are recognized in the Latin 
Camus and JMomus. 

% 89. (16) Deities peculiar to the Romans. These may be arranged under the fol- 
lowing divisions : 

1. Places, rivers, &c., personified. — 2. Pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to 
guardian spirits. — 3. Eminent persons, especially emperors, deified. — 4. Virtues and 
vices personified. — 5. Foreign deities introduced. 

^ 90. Of the first division, Roma and Ti b er are the principal. Roma was honored 
by the Romans with temples, sacrifices, and annual festivals, and is one of the most 
common figures on their medals. 

-In Plate II. is a splendid representation of the goddess Roma, from a painting formerly belong- 
ing to the Barberini family. — In the same Plate is given also a representation of the Tiber as a 
god. — For similar representations of Italy, Judea, the Danube, &c.,se3 PI. XLII.; cf. P. IV. $ 139 2. 

^ SI. In the second, various rural deities are particularly to be noticed. 

I u. Terminus. . In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of 
property and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, the Romans in- 
vented a god, who had it for his pecuhar province to guard and protect them, called Ter- 
minus. His statue, in the form of those called HermcB\ was employed usually to mark 
the limits of fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular festi- 
val, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of February by the occupants 
and proprietors of contiguous iands^. Upon these occasions offerings were presented to 
the god on the boundaries or separating lines. He had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. 
— Oftentimes the statues of other gods, particularly the rural, were placed in the form 
of Hermae, to mark the limits of landed property, and Jupiter himself was sometimes 
represented under the name of Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalia. 

t See § 56. P. XV. § 164. 2. 2 Cf. Ovid, Fast. ii. 639. 

2u. Priapus. The Romans ranked Priapiis among the deities whose province 
was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was usually placed in 
gardens {Hor. 1. i. sat. 8), which were considered as more particularly his care. 

Images of Priapus were sometimes worn as a sort of amulet (fnscinuw) to guard against evil 
charms, and hang upon the doors of houses and gardens. The. gnd whose special province il 
was to protect from the charm of the evil eye was named Fascinus. — Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 4. 
xxiv. 4.— See P. III. $ 227. 3. 

Priapus is usually represented with a human face and the ears of a goat ; he has a sickle or 
scythe to prune the trees and cut down the corn, and a clul> to keep off thieves ; his body termi- 
nates in a shapeless trunk. — An ass was generally sacrificed to hiiii. 

Representations of Priapus are given in Plate XLV. and in the Sup. Plate 23. In the latter, 
with an extended arm he holds a bell in his hand. In the former, which is from a large anaglyph 
or bas-relief given by Montfaucon after Boissard.'we inay observe the rites practiced at the fes- 
tival of this god. It is celebrated by women ; two jiriestesses are close by the statue, one of 
whom is pouring water or some other liquid upon the image from a bottle ; four others are 
engaged in sacrificing an ass; behind the animal stand two others in peculiar costume, one 
holding apparently a sistrwis the other a bowl or round vase ; on the l«ft of the statue are two 
women playinc on the double tibia, and others bearing baskets of fruit and flowers and vessels 
of wine ; on the right are two playing on the tyinpaniivi. one dressed like a bacchanal with a 
child on her neck, and others with their off'erings of fruit, flowers, and wine. 

3 w. Vertumnus. Under this name an old Italian prince, who probably intro- 
duced the art of gardening, was honored after death ns a cjod. The Romans considered 
him as specially presiding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Fomoiia. one of the 
Hamadryads (cf. § 101). a goddess of gardens and fruus. whose love he gained at lasv 
after changing himself into many forms, from which circumstance his name {Ov. Mel. 
xiv. 623) was derived. This goddess is represpnied on some monuments of ancien' 
art, and is designated by a basket of fruit placed near or borne by her. 

Vertumnus is generally represented as a young man, crowned with flowers, iveicu up cu 



120 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the waist, and holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left."- In the Snp. 
Plate 23, the horn is in his left hand, and the fruit in his right ; he is fully draped, with the head 
and leg <if a swine hanging from his shonhler This may he supposed to cnrresfiond to his statue 
aientioned by Cicero {Ferr. i.) and by Honice (Epis. 20) as standing in a streei of Rome. 

In the same Plate is a representation of Pniiiivn, from an ancient monuuient; she is without 
drapery, holding a flower in one hand and a melon in the other, resting against tlie trunk of a 
tree, from which a basket of fruit is suspended. 

4: II. F lora. The Romans had also a particular goddess of blossoms and flowxrs, 
wliom they worshiped under the name of Flora. She is said to have been ihe same as 
ihe Grecian nymph Chloris; although others maintain, that she was originally Lit •' 
Roman courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly unknown to the 
Greeks, since Pliny (N. H. xxxvi. 5) speaks, of a siatue of her made by Praxiteles. 
She was represented as very youthful, and richly ad(jrned with ilowers. She had a 
festival and games at Rome, celebrated {Ov. Fast. v. 283) in the month of April, called 
FLoralia; they presented scenes of unbounded licentiousness. 

The indecency of this festival was checked on one occasion by the presence of Cat n. who chose 
however to retire rather than witness it (Vuler. Mux. ii. 10). By some the festival is said to 
have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the name of Flora. 

In our Plate XIV. fig. 5, Flora is represented with a garland of flowers on her head, and a 
-horn of plenty on hei left arm ; ms she appears in several antiques. In 8up. Plate 23, she is 
given from a beautiful statue, once at Rome, and copied by Le Brun ; not however identical 
with the celebrated Flora Funiese (cf P. IV. $ 186. 11). 

5m. Feronia. Another goddess of fruits, nurseries, and groves, among the Ro- 
mans, was Feronia. She had a very rich temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a 
grove specially sacred to her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves 
(P. in "^^ 324), who ordinarily received their liberty in her temple. It was pretended 
that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on burning coals.- Her name 
was derived according to. some from a town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte: accord- 
ing to others, from the idea of her bringing relief (fero) to the slave ; or from that of 
her producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit. 

6u. Pales. Another goddess of the same class, was Pales (from pabulum), to 
whom was assigned the care of pasturage and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a 
rural festival (Ov. Fast. iv. 721) was held in the month of April, called Pcf/j'Z/a or 
Far Hi a. 

On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed little heaps of straw in a particular order and at 
a certain distance ; then they danced and leaped over them; then they purified the sheep and 
the rest of the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sul|)hur, and the like. The desijjn was 
lo appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolvf^s, and to prevent the diseases inci- 
dent to cattle. Milk, and wafers made of millet, were offered to her, that she might render the 
pastures fruitful. Pales is represented as an old lady, surrounded by shepherds. 

7. Numerous other ncral gods and goddesses of inferior character were recognized 
by the Romans, Among the minor rural goddesses, we find Bubona, having the care 
of oxen ; Seia or Segeiia, having the care of seed planted in the earth ; Hi'ppp?ia, pre- 
siding over horses; Collina, goddess of hills; Valloniu, empress of the valleys; Run- 
ciita, the goddess of weeding; Volusia, wirH several other goddesses, who watch over 
the corn in its successive steps to maturity (cf. § 5. 3) ; Mellona, the goddess who in- 
vented the art of making honey. Among the male deities of the same class, we find 
Occator, the god of harrowing ; Sterculius. the inventor of manuring; and Pilumnus, 
the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread. 

•51 92 u. In the latter period of the Republic and during the first ages of the Empire 
the Roman system of divinities was greatly augmented. Almost every profession and 
employment and condition m life had its tutelar god or gods, whose names thus became 
innumerable, but who never obtained a universal worship. For a knowledge of these, 
we are mainly indebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers, especially Augustinus 
[d,e Civifate Dei, 1. iv.), against polytheism. To this class belong, for example, Bellona, 
the goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 'E")a) among the Greeks (§ 46); 
Jti.turua, the goddess of succor ; Anculi and Anculce, deities presiding over servants ; 
Vacunn, goddess of leisure ; Strenua, goddess of diligence ; Laverna, goddess of 
•^heft; Cunina, goddess of cradles, &c. 

Diseases were exalted into deities. Fehris (fever), e. g. had her altars and temple, and was 
.vorshiped that she might not hurt; and so of others of this species. — Mephitis was goddess of 
^oxious exhalations. Tuc. Hist. iii. 33. 

^ 93. Here we should mention Victoria, a deity of much consideration at Rome. 
The hnll of the sena'e was adorned by her al'ar, and a stattie in which she appears ps 
' a majes'ic female, s'anding on a globe, wi'h flowing garments, expanded wings, anj 
n crown of laurel in her out-stre'ched hand." The senators were sworn on the altar 
of this tjoddess to observe the Iqws of the empire. A contest arose between the pagans 
iind the Christians on this subject, the latter finally effecting the removal of this altai 
,if Victory. 

Sec Pnideiitius, Advers. Syimactitim, cf. P. V. ^ 387 

In our Plate XIV; fij |0, and in the Sup. Plate 18, Victory is seen as represented in the statue 
tnertiioned above. 



PLATE XIV, 




122 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

94 If . D eified Emperors. To the gods already mentioned, we may add those 
which were constituted by the apotheosis ot the emperors and their favorites. '1 hu8 
u Caesar, an Augustus, a Claudius, an Aniino.us. and others, were elevated to the 
rank of gods. Sometimes this was done in their liietime by the vilest adulation, but 
more frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants. 

It would probably be as proper to rank the deified empemrs (cf. $ 133) in the fourth class of 
our division They should be mentioned in iliis place, however, as belonging strictly lo the 
number of ihe Roman divinities, in distinction from Greek. 

^95u. Virtues and Vices. The poets were accustomed to give a personal re 
presentation to abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues and vices ; and 
in this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, which were, how- 
ever, sometimes mingled with the mythological, and were honored with temples, 
rites, and significant images and symbols. Such were Virtus, Honor, Pietas, In' 
vidia, Fraus, and the like. 

Virtus was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a sq\iare stone — The tem- 
ple of Hun or stood close by that of Virtus, and was approached by it. The priests sacrificed lo 
Honor with bare heads. 

The temple of Fi'les (good faith) stood near the Capitol. The priests in sacrificing to her 
sovered their hands and heads with a white cloth. Her symbol was a white dog, or two hands 
joined, and sometimes two virgins shaking hands. 

The temple of Spes (hope) was in the herb-market. Her image is on some of the coins. She 
is in the form of a woman standing, with her left hand holding lightly the skirts of her garments, 
and in her right a plate, with a sort of cup on it fashioned to the likeness of a flower; with this 
inscription. Spes P. R. Similar to this is her appearance in Plate XIV. fig. 8, drawn from a 
medal of Titus. 

A temple to Pietas was dedicated in the place where that woman lived who fed With the milk 
of her own breasts her mother in prison. Cf. Plin. N. H. vii. c. 36. 

Concordia had many altars. Her image held a bowl in the right hand, and a horn of plenty in 
•he left. Such is her appearance, sitting on a chair of state, in Plate XIV. fig. 11, taken from a 
consular coin. Her symbol was two hands joined together and a pomegranate. 

In the later periods of Rome, Pax had a very magnificent temple in ihe Forum, finished by 
Vespasian. The goddess of peace or security is often represented on Imperial coins. In Plate 
XIV. fig. 12, from a coin of Titus, she appears as a woman resting on a colun;n, with a spike of 
wheat in the left hand, and a scepter like the wand of Mercury in the right, held over a tripod. 

Fraus was represented with a human face and a serpent's body ; in the end of her tail was a 
scorpion's sting. 

Invidia is described as a meager skeleton, dwelling in a dark and gloomy cave, and feeding on 
snakes. Ov. Metam. ii. 761. 

•^ 96. Foreign Gods. It is proper to notice here some Egyptian deities, whose 
worship was partially introduced at Rome. 

1. Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled 
first over the Argives, and' afterwards, leaving them, to have become an illustrious 
king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said to be the same with 
the lo, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the fables changed by Jupiter into 
a cow. Osiris was at length slain by Typhon, and his corpse concealed in a chest and 
thrown into the Nile. Isis, after much search, by the aid of keen-seemed dogs found 
the body, and placed it in a monument on an island near Memphis. The Egyptians 
paid divine honor to his memory, and chose the ox to represent him, because as some 
say a large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to 
others, because Osiris had instructed them in agriculture, 

Osiris was generally represented with a cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns ; he held 
H Stick in his left hand, and in his right a whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears with 
*he head of a hawk. 

In the Sup. Plate 26, are two engravings marked as representations of Osiris. The first is ac- 
cording to a colossal statue, dug up at Rome, and taken by some for an Isis. The second is from 
another sculpture, and shows the hawk's head. In Plate XV, he is seen in a sitting posture — 
Cf. Movtfaucov, Ant. Exp. vol. 2. p. 278, 290. — The image of a hawkwhh a vessel on its head, and 
ihat of the ibib- with a serpent in its bill, have been taken by some as emblems of Osiris; see 
Plate VIII. 

2.. Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. lo after her metamorphosis is said, after 
wandering over the earth, to have come to the banks of the Nile, and there she was 
restdred to the form of a woman. She reigned after her husband's murder, and was 
deified by the Egyptians. The cow was employed as her symbol, but more commonly 
the sistrum. 

Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full of ears of corn, lltr 
jody sometimes appears enveloped in a sort of net. On some monuments she holds in her lap a 
:hild, her son Horvs. who is also ranked among the deities of Egypt. 

In the Sup. Plate 26, she is seen holding her son, on whose head is a cap surmounted by a 
■^lobe ; her own head is formed into that of a cow, with a hawk on the forehead, surmounted by 
.1 singular cap. In Plate XV. she is seen as represented on the hiac Table. In the same Plate 
Ilorus is given as found on that Table. 

Some liave considered OsiVis .ind his as represenlinj the sun and Ihi- moon. Their story is by others viewed as corre>i)nnding 
^> hat of Venus and Adonis. (Cf Knight's Enqniry, k:.) — Some resemblances have been pointed cut between Isis and Isa. a deitj 
♦he Hindoos, and Disa, a goddess worsliiped among the northern tribes of Europe (cf. Tac. Germ. 9) — See Creuzcr's Synibolili. 

The Egyntians had numerous festivals which were connected with the fables re 



I'. II INFERIOR GODS. FOREIGN GODS. 123 

Bpccting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was termed tlio 
Isia ; which lasted nitie days, and was attended with such hcentiousness as to be ai 
length prohibited by the senate. 

The Tsiac Table is a curious mnnuincnt, whicli receives its name from its being supposed to 
represent the mysteries of Isis. Tlie oriL'inal was obtained at Rome, A. D 1525, and came after 
some time into the cabinet of the duke of Mantua, where it remained until the pillage of thai 
city, A. U. 16.30; it is said to be now (18:^9) in the royal gallery at Turin. It is described as a 
tablet of copper or bronze, " almost four feet long, and of pretty near the same breadth ;" and 
"covered with silver nmsaic, skilfully inlaid ;" "the ground-work being a black enamel." It 
isdivided intathree eiiual compariments by two h'orizonial lines of hieroglyphics ; the middle 
compartment being subdivided by two perpendicular lines of hieroglyphics into three compart- 
ments, a larger one in the center, and a smaller one at each side of it. The five compartments 
thus formed are crowded with figures, with hieroglyphics interspersed. The whole is surrounded 
by a border, also crowded with figures and hieroglyphics. The engravings in our Plate XV. are 
all drawn from this Table, in that Plate Isis is given as seen in the center of the Table, sitting 
in a splendid gate-way. 

A fine engraving of the whole Table wi!h some explanation, is given by Montfaucon, Ant. Expl vol. ii. p. 340, as cited § I-. i (d). 
— Il is given also in Cayhis, Recueil des Antiquiles, vol. vii. p. 34, cited P. III. § 13. 2. — Of. Shuchford, Sacr. and Prof. Hist. Con 
bk. viii. — Encycl. Ameri. vol. vii. 83. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. 82. 

Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at Pompeii, is a Temple of fsis. The columns 
which surrounded it are almost entirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of uricii, 
and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square, and was not 
covered, but was surrounded by a covered gallery, which was supported by columns, and served 
for a shelter in bad weather. " In this temple have been found all the instruments which apper- 
tain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests, who had been surprised 
Hnd buried by the shower of cinders in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Theii 
vestments, the cinders and coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which 
contained the lustral water, paterae employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve the 
intestines of the victims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis when they 
offered sacrifices to her, the aitributes of the divinity wiih which the temple was adorned, &c., 
are still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ; 
and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in tlie situation in which 
they were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The waits 
of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess; there were 
figures of t)riests in the costume of their order: their vestments were of white linen, the heads 
of the officiating priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thin lace, through which th-e 
muscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. 

3. Apis. This is the name of the o.x in which Osiris was supposed to reside, rather 
than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain marks ; his body 
was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a white crescent 
or sort of half-moon on his right side ; on his back was the figure of an eagle ; under 
his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle (canfharus); and tvvo sorts of hair upon 
his tail. This ox was permitted to live twenty-five years. His body was then em- 
balmed, placed in a chest, or Sopi,-, and buried wiih many solemnities. A season of 
mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to 
sight. — It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the 
second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high cham- 
ber in the interior of the pyramid a Sopij, which, on being carefully opened, presented 
the bones of an ox. 

Mnevis is the name of the sacred ox consecrated to the Sun, and worshiped espe 
cially at Heliopolis. He is described as being white. 

In Plate XV. are two representations, from the Isiac Table, supposed to be J3pis an^J Mvevis, 
each is attended by two priests; under the head of each is a standard supporting something, 
perhaps the eating-trough of the sacred animal. 

Cf Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 201. — Banier, L'Orig, du culte que les Eeyptiens rendoient aux aniinaux, in the Mem. Jlcad. Inter 
iii. 84. — Also Blanctiard, Des animaux respectes en Egypte, in the Mem. ^c. ix. 20.— Prichard, as cited § 12. 2 ( f ). 

4. Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be the 
same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapea, were erected to hiiu 
at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates a marvelous tale of the re- 
moval of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the southern shore of the Pontus Euxi- 
nus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much 
earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were introduced at Rome under the em- 
perors, but soon abolished on account of their licentiousness.-: — Some derive the name 
from Sopof and "Am^, as having signified at first merely the chest or box in which the 
body of Apis was deposited. 

In the Sup. Plate 2t, we have a very r^jmarkable statue nf Serapis; resembling as to the form 
of the body that of Pybele in Sup. Plate 5, and that of Diana Ephesia in Sup. Plate l(i; around 
the body twines a huge serpent, whose tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the head 
appe-ars at his feet; on the portions between the folds of the serpent are various figures of per- 
sons and animals. — In the Sup. Plate 25. we have anothpr, nmre in the Koman style; Serapis 
sits, in full drapery, with sandals on his feet ; one arm raised in earnest action ; given by Mont- 
faucon a«i belonoin? to the cnhinel of Fnuvel. In the same Plate is anf>lhpr representation from 
an Jiiiraiast (cf. P IV. J '200. 2); he holds a spear in his right hand, a- d points iipwMrtl with the 

either; a Cerberus stands at his side. In ;ill these images we notice the face and beard of a 

J'lniter. and aJao the cnlalhua or basket on the head which is the mark of Serapis. 



124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

It has been supposed by some, and the notion is adopted by Dr E. D Clarke, tliat the Ea;yptian ApU ws a symbol of.lotepfi; airf 
fhat the various legends cnnnecfed with the worship of this god grew oui of the liistory of th it patriarch.— Cf. I^cisi'us. de Theologii 
Sentili. Amst. Ii542.— Clarke, Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch, 5. 

5. Anubis. This was another deity connected in i'able with Osiris. He was said 
to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis m her search after her husband. 
He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Hennanubis ; or, as 
others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a similar character. 

H« appears to be represented in the monument exhibited in our Plate XVllI. fig B. Cf 
J 3t. 2, — 111 the Sup. Plate 27, we have iinagfis of Annbis. The first is from a piece of marbl* 
sculpture given by Montfaiicon froin Hoissard ; he stands with one foot on a crocodile, holding 
in his left hand a cadnceus, and in the right a short rod attached to a ghbe; by his head on ont 
side is a palm leaf, on the other a laurel -branch ; on his right is seen also the head of Serapis, 
and on his left that of Apis, from which circumstance the inscriiiti'ti on the oriffinal morniirient, 
6EOI AAEA<^OI, is supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. The other image in this 
Plate is drawn from an engraved gem; presenting Anubis with the Roman coat of mail and a 
bow and arrow. 

CvNOCEPiiALU-s is bv some considered to be the same as Antibis; but this name in Egyptian 
Tiylh<dogy merely designates the dog as converted into a divinity. The term Ci/vocephali is ap- 
plied by Greek writers to a race of beings said to exist in Asia (Diud. Sic. iii. 34). Tlie image in 
Slip. Plate 27, is given by Moiilfaucon, under the name of Cercopithecus, as being the monkey- 
god of Egypt. 

jElurus designates the cat, as deified by the Egyptians, iind especially honored at Bubastis; 
whence the name Diana Bubastis, applied to the same animal. Their images are given in 
Sup. Plate 27. 

6. Harpocrates. He is supposed to be the same as Horns, son of Isis, and was 
worshiped as the god of Silence. He was much honored among the Romans, who 
placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usually represented in 
the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which ended at the points as it 
were in two buds ; in his. left hand he held a horn of plenty, while a finger of his right 
hand was fixed upon his lips to conimand silence and secrecy. 

Cf. Porphyry, Cave of Nymphs (cf. P. V. § 199. 2). — Class Juum iii. 142. — Mon^ez, Recueil des Aniiquies. Par 1804. 4. 

Tn Plate XLVII. fig. 1, from an .Abraxas, we have Harpocrates sitting on the lotus flower; cf. P. 
IV. $ 198. In the Sup. Plate 25, the first image of Harpocrates presents him wiih a singular 
head-covering, from which a large horn descends below the shoulder. The second is remark- 
able, because he has the wing of Mercury, the paniher-skin of Bacchus, the owl of Minerva, the 
hound of Diana, the serpent of ^Esculapius, together with the horn of plenty. 

7. Canopus. He is said to have been ihe pilot or admiral of the fleet of Osiris in 
his expedition to India. In the Egyptian mythology he seems to be the god of the 
waters of the Nile. 

Nearly all the representations of him are formed by the head of a person or animal appearing 
at the top of one of those vases in which the Egyptians kept the waters of that river; the body 
of the vase is frequently covered with hieroglyphics. Two such representations are given in 
our Plate VIII. 



III. — Mythical Beings^ whose history is intimately connected with thai of the 

irods. 

§ 97. (1) Titans and Giants. The enterprises of the Titans are celebrated in 
the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have already been mentioned in the 
account of Saturn (§ 14), to whom they were brothers, being generally con- 
sidered as sons of Uranus or Coelus and Titaea. The oldest was called Titan, 
and from him, or their mother, they derived their common name. The preva- 
lent tradition assigned to Uranus five sons besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion^ Cceus^ 
Japetus, Criiis, and Oceanus ,- and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife 
of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thya, Thoelje, and TtM^s, called Titanides. 
On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which however Saturn and 
Oceanus took no part, the Titans were hurled by their father down to Tartarus, 
whence they were set free by the aid of Saturn. With Saturn also they after- 
wards contested the throne, but unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in 
speaking of Vulcan (§ 53), may be considered as belonging to the Titans. 

The number of the Titans is given variously ; ApoUodorus mentions 13, Hyginus 6. 

The tiuinber of 45 is stated hy some. The name oi' one of them, Japefvs, is strik- 

:ng!y similar to Japhct, mentioned in the Bible, whose descendants peopled " Europe* 
iind it is remarkable that in the Greek traditions Japetus is called the fa.her of man 
\t.-i.d Some have considered the Titans as the descendants of Gomer, the son dt 



%r 




p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GIANTS. TRITONS. SIRENS. 125 

Japhet'. — They have also been supposed to b^the Cushites, or descendan.'s oi Cn.sh^, 
and the builders of the tower of Babel. — 'Olhers think them merely personitications 
of the elements^ ; and suppose their fabled war with their father Coelus, or against 
Saturn, an allegorical representation of a war of the elements. 

Hesiod's Batlle of the Titans is often named as a remarkable specimen of subhmity. 
It will be interesting to compare' it with Homer's Battle of the Gods, and 'Milton's 
Battle of the Angels. 

t Cf. Ptzrun, Aniiquit des Celtes. 2 Bryant, Analys. of Ancient Mythology. 3 ff. Hermann, Briefe fiber das We?en e'er 

Mytliologie. ■* Compare Horn. II xx. 54 ss. Hes. Theog. 674 ss Mill. Farad. Los', vi. 

§ 98. The Giants were a distinct class, althouirh their name (ytya?, from yjj 
and yivio) designates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, who gave llieni birth, after 
the defeat of the Titans by .lupiter, and out of vengeance against him. The 
most famous of them were Enceladus^ Hakyimeus, Typhoiu ^'Jgei)7i, Ejphialles^ 
and Otus. According to the common description, they had bodies of extra- 
ordinary size and strength, some of them with a hundred liands, and with 
dragon's feet, or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated undertaking 
was the storming of Olympus', the residence of Jupiter and the other gods 
In order to scale this summit, they heaped mountain upon mountain, as lEta 
Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Jupiter smote them with his thunderbolts, 
precipitated some of them to Tartarus, and buried others beneath the moun- 
tains. Typhon or Typhreus, for; instance, he pressed down with the weight of 
M\.n7i^, under which, according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift 
himself up, and pours from his mouth torrents of flame. 

1 Cv. Meiam. i. 151. 2 Ou. Met. v. 346 —CToMd Gigantomach.— Pmrf Pvih. \.Z\.—Mem de Vlnstitut, C\asse d'Hisl. el Lit. 

./Inc. vol. vii. 98. sur la nature allegorique des centi niaues, kc.—Banitr, sur Tyption, in the Mtm Mad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 1 16. 

1. JEgeon or Briareus was another giant, eininent in the contest, with fifty heads 
and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge rocks at a single 
throw; but Jupiter bouna him also under ^Etna, with a hundred chains. — This story 
of the war between the Giants and Jupiter is also explained by some as an allegori- 
cal representation of some great struggle in nature which took place in early times. 
This contest is to be distinguished from that of the Titans, who, although ofien con- 
founded with the Giants, were a distinct class. 

2. Orion is by some also placed among the giants as a son of Gaia or Terra; yet 
the more coipmon fable ascribes his origin to the joint agency of Jupiter, Mercury, 
and Neptune ; according to which some derive his name from the Greek word 6i''(>ov 
(ii/rina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, and after his death his name 
was given to a constellation. 

See Francceur, as cited § 1 17 ( f ). — De Fnurmont, Le fab. d'Orion, in the Mem. Acad, Inscr. xiv. 16. at'empting to show a con- 
neclion of the fahle vyith the story of Isaac the son of Abraham. 

3. The Pi/o-viies of the ancients were fahnlons beinfff!, of very diminutive size, supposed by 
some to dwell in Esypt and Ethiopia ; by oiliers, in Thrace and Scythia ; and by oihersjn India. 

Cf. Ov. Met. vi. 90.— P/i/i. Hist. Nat. vii. 2.—Heyne, on Horn. II iii. 6.—Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. as cited P. IV. ^ 171 —Maltiy 
Brun, in the Jlntialcs des Voyage.<!, vol. i. p. Zbh.—Baiiier, Les Pygniees, in ihe Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 101. — Calrnet, as ciled 
P. I. § 168 b. vol. iii. p. \\3.—A. W. Zwer^ius, Ue Py^maeia .Etn opis, Kil. 17^4. 4. 

§ 99. Tritons and Sirens. Trifnn has already been mentioned (§ 29) as a 

son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most famous, the other various 

deities of the sea derived the name of Tritons. They were represented, like 

him, as half man and half fish, with the whole body covered with scales. 

They usually formed the retinue of Neptune, whose approach Triton himself 

announced by blowing his horn, which was a large conch or sea shell. 

A Triton is usually represented with the form of a nian in the ujiper part, and ttie form of a 
fsh in the lower. Sometimes the head of the'fish is also retained ; as in the Sup. Plate 19, fronj 
a sculpture given by Montfancon ; where Triton is seen heariiiL' perlia;)s a Nt'reid. or nmre pro- 
bably Vevus Marina, since the figure at the rig.lit appears to he a (Jiipid. In Plate XI. 111. Tiilou 
h announcing with his horn the approach of Neptune.— Cf. Ov. Met. i. 333. — Virff. M\\. \ 209. 

There were other minor divinities of the sea under Nepttxne ; but Triton seems to 
have had the pre-eminence, and imder Neptune a sort of control amorg tlicm. Phor 
cus, Proteus, and Glaucus have been already mentioned (§ 29). Ncreus was ranked 
among them as a son of Oceanus, and the father of ihe Nereides. Ino and her so4i 
Palaemon or Mehcertes, are also said to have teen admitted by Nepiurt as gods c? 
his retinue. Paloemon is thought to be the same with Porittm?ius, whoi.i the Koman> 
worshiped as the guardian of harbors. 

§ 100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to be two iij 
number, by others, three, and even four. Homer mentions but two', and de- 
«5crihes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with them ewn 



126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

voyajrer, who was allured thither hy their captivating rrnisic. They wou.d 
iiave decoyed even Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, hut were not permitted. — 
By others they were descrihed as daughters of the river-o-od Achelous, ?.nd 
companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changed into hirds^, 
that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the Muses 
in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emulation. Others 
make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the 
faces of women and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represent 
them as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds. 

> Horn. Od xii. 30 166. "2 Ov. Met. v. 552. 

Their fabled residence was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily; 
by others, on the islands or rocks called Sirennusas, not far from the promontory of 
Surrentum on the coast of Iialy. — Various explanations oi' the fable of the Sirens have 
been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in 
pleasure. 

§ 101. (3) Nymphs. The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed as holding 
a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to the duration of life; 
not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was 
considered as their common father, although the descent of diflferent nymphs is 
given differently. Their usual residence was .in grottoes or water-caves, from - 
vvhich circumstance they received their name, Na;^(j)at. ^Fheir particular offices 
were different, and they were distinguished by various names according to the 
several objects of their patronage, or the regions in vvhich they chiefly resided. 

1 u. Thus there were the Oreadts, or nymphs of the moupiains ; Naiades, Nereides 
(cf. ^ 29), and Fofamides, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers; Dryades and 
Hamadryades , nymphs of the woods ; Najprce., nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads 
were disiinguished from the Hamadryads (''fia 'p^'s) in this, that the latter were sup- 
posed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which they came into being, 
lived and died ; while the former had the care of the woods and trees in general. 

2. Places consecrated to these iinaginary beings were called Nu^uc/tara. Such wag 
the celebrated spot in the vicinity of ApoUonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which 
was seen to issue constantly from the ground {Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was 
the place and building at Rome which was called Nymj)h(Eum, adorned with statues 
of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and waterfalls. Festivals 
were held in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been stated as above .3000. 

See Fontenu, Le Culle ties diviiiites des eaux, in Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 27. — Cf Loud Quart. Rev. xvii 192. . 

They were generally represented as yonn^ iind heatuifnl virgins, partially covered with a vei! 
or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or srass, or having sonie- 
thinsr as a syn)bol of their appropriate otfices. Tlie several gods are represented, more or less 
frequently, as attended hy nymphs of some class or oiher ; especially Neplnne, Diana, and B;ic- 
chus. Under the term of nymphs, 'were sotneiimes included the imaginary spirits that snided 
the heavenly spheres and constellations, and dispersed the influences of the stars ; the nymphs 
being dislrit'Uted by some mythologists into three classes, those of ilie sky, the lufld, and the sea. 

In Plate XLtTT Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune and Amphitrite — In the i?up. Plate 
19, we have a Nereid upon a sea-monster which seems to consist of the lower part of a fish united 
with the heads of two Imrses, which she guides hy reins ; one horse has two fins or wings instead 
of the two fore feet ; from a gem of Miflff-i. In sume representations, the Nereid appears a woman 
with the lower part of the body in the form of a fish, tints exhibiting the mtrinaid. 

§ 102. (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having in their fic- 
tions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; but assigned to 
particular branches of knowledge and art their appropriate tutelary spirits or 
guardian divinities, whom they called Muses, Movoai, and considered as the 
daught'i'rs of .Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They were nine in number, according 
to the common account, with Greek names, as follows : K%flm {Illustrious')^ 
KaVkionri (Fr/ir-roice), M^'krioj.dvT] {Si7is:ing), ®d'ksia (^TWy), 'Eparw (Lovinij^), 
'F.vriprtrj {Well-pleasini>;), T?p4't;top'>7 {Dance-hvini^), noXv/u'ta (Songful), an^ 
'O^Jpa^^'a {Celestial). 

The Romans termed Ihem Camrrnm. They were fr»"quently called by common names, derived 
rom places sacred to thnn, or from other circumstances, as Pieriiles, from Pieria, Jlunidei,, H^M- 
cohiadts. f'anias.'iideg, Hippucreiddts, ( a.-^talides, &,c. 

vl03v<. /n order to represent the Muses as excelling in their several arts, tbp'> 
I tally in music and song, the" pt e's imagined various contests held by them ; as, for 
example, with the Sirens, and the daughters of Pierus', in which the !\luses always 
^ainet^ 'be prize. They were described as remaiiiiiig virgins, and as lieiiig undtsr the 
>n'=truct'on and protection of Apollo. 1 heir usual rcL^idence was Mt. Helicon, where 



p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GRACES. HOR^. FATES. I'll 

was tne fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. Parnassus, where was the fountain Castnlia; 
the former in Boeotia ; the latter near Delphi^ in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierus 
in Thessaly were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also conserraljd 
to them among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their honor were instituted 
m several parts of Greece^, especially among the Thespians. The Macedonians 
observed a f stival for Jupiter and the Muses, which was continued nine days.' 

1 Ov Met V. 3''0. 2 See View of Delphi and Parnassus forming the Frontispiece to this Manual. 3 See llcyne, de Mus*; 

religione, ejusq. oris;, el causis in Comment. Soc. reg. Gutting, vol. viii. 

The Muses are usually rt^presented as virgins ^ith ornamented dressps, and crowned with 
palms or laurels. " Accordin"; to the best authorities, Ci.io, History, holds in her hand a half- 
opened scroll ; Mklpomene, Tra^i'dy, is veiled, and leans upon a pillar, holding in lier left hand 
a tragic mask ; Thalia. Comedy, hotds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a slafT resembling 
a lituus Or augur's wand ; Eutkrpk, Jifii.-^ic, holds two flutes or pipes ; '1 erpsichork, the Danre, 
is represented in a dancing attitude, and plays upon a seven-sirinjied l\re; ¥jn\rn, Jlmatury 
Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instrument ; Calliope, Kpic Pnetry, has a roil of p.irclimenl in her 
hand, and sometimes a straii'ht triim[iet or tulia ; Urania, j?.>777j»(y;/(7/, liohls in her left hand a 
glot)e; in her right a rod, with which she appears to point out some object to the beholder: 
Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Iinitatinn, places the fore-finser of the right hand upon her mouth, 
or else bears a scroll in her hand." (Jlnthon's Lemp ) — Generally accordant with this descrip- 
tion, yet in some resppcts different, are the (inures in our Plate XXXIX. ; where the Muses are 
represented as seen in the statues belonging to the collection of Christina queen of Sweden, and 
described hy MaflTei. — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing the 
Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, in which the nine are 
represented. 

"The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of 
them sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil of nature described them in that 
manner upon the agale which Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring; for in 
it was a representation of the nine muses, and Ap.illo holding a liarp ; and these figures were 
not delineated by art {Pliii. I,, xxxvii. c, 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature." 
{Tooke's Paiiih.) 

For virions represen'ations of the Muses, see Montfaucmi, Ant. Exp. vol. 1. plates 56-62. — Museum Pw-Clcmentiniim, vol i. 
pUles 17-28. vol. iv. phtes 14, 5. 

§ 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retintie of Venus belonged 
the Graces, Xapt-rf?, Grafiae, servants and companions of the aoddess, dilfiising 
charms and gladness. They were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Fjury- 
nome, or according, to others of Bacchus and Venus herself, and were three in 
number, 'Ay?iaJa {Splendor)^ @d%fia {Pleasure)^ and 'En^poctrz'?/ {J'>y)' They 
M'ere honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal cities. 
Altars were often. erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mer- 
cury, Venus, and the Muses. 

1 u. They are frequently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, com- 
monly in a group, holding each other by the hand, and without drapery 

*2. Thus they appear in the Sup. Plate 8, a representation whicli very nearly resembles what 
is seen on two beautiful antique engraved gems, given by Ogle, Ant. Exp. Plates 47, 48. In the 
Sup. Plate 7, the Graces are einployed in adornitig Venus. An antique painting found, with 
other [»ieces, at Rome, in a vault near the Colis.-eum, in 1668, exhibits them dancing, with slight 
drapery. 

Of. Find. Olymp. xtv.—Manso, Abh. Uber die Horen und Grazien, in his Mythol. l^crsur.hen. — Maisieii, sur les Graces, in the 
Msrti.. de VAcad. des Inscr. iii. S. 

§ 105. The Ilurse, 'flpat, were the goddesses of Time, presiding especially 
over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were considered as the daughters 
and servants of Jupiter. They came at length to be viewed as tutelary patrons 
of beauty, order, and regularity, in reference to which Themis was said to be 
their mother. They were named Evvo/xLa, Aixrj, Etpj^i'Tj. 

The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some writers to hnve had 
originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have aflervvnrds lost their astro 
nomical attributes, when moral ideas and-qualities became more prominent in the 
Greek system of fictions. 

The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and garlands of palni- 
leaf. and all of the satne age. In some monuments of later periods-, /o(/r Hours appear, corre- 
sponding to the fiur seasons. — In the Sup. Plate 10, the Hours are represented lly four virginsi 
attending Aurora. 

In reoresentiug the seasons, the Romans used the masculine gender; thus in our Plate IX. 
which exhibits them as sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we see four lads or young men, each 
with wings, and appropriate symbols of Spring. .Summer, Autunm, and Winter. The lloiriaiig 
also personified the Months, usually representing them by male figures. 

Of. Winrhelmann, Hist, de I'Art, 1. iv. ch 2. § 83 —Mnnlfaucon, Ant Exp. Suppl. vol. i. p. 22 ss. Here he eives also, Pla'et 
5-16, from I ambecius, ensravinjs of the representa ions of the months as beautifully ilepicti'd in a n]anuscri[)t helonsint; to Ihelmpe 
rial Library at Vienna ; Ftl)ruary alone is represented by a female. 

§ 106. (fi) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of human 
life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to the notion of tb 



128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Fntes^ called Motpat by the Greeks ; by the Romans, Parcse. They were three 
sisters, dauorhters of Nig-ht, whom Jupiter permitted to decide the fortune and 
especially the duration of mortal life. One of them Clolho (K^^co^w), attached 
the thread; the second, Lachesis (Aa;i;frjt$), spun it; and the third, .Stropos 
("Arportof), cut it off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as in- 
exorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their 
worship was not very general. 

TJie Parcffi were generally represented as three old women, with chaplets made of wool and 
interwoven with the flowers of tlie Narcissus, wearing long robes, and employed in their woiks : 
Clothe with a distaff; Lachesis having near her sometimes several spindles : and Atropos hold- 
ing a pair of scissors. Sucli is their appearance in the Sup. Plate 14, which is ;iot copied from 
any ancient monument, but designed after the description of the poets. 

See Cnhdl. Epithal. Pel et Thet. v. 305. — Mama's Abhaudl. v. Parzen. in his Mylhol. Vtrsuchen. — Banitr, Sur les Parques, io 
the Mem. Acad. Jnscr. vol. iv. 648. 

§ 107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the lower 
world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proserpine, 
whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, and often to inflict ven- 
geance upon the living. The Greeks called them EpivvvB^, Furies; and also 
by a sort of euphemism, or from design to propitiate them, Eii;jtifvi.'6t$, signify- 
ing kindly disposed j the Romans styled them Furiae. Their names were 
Tisiphone (from tias and ^61/05), whose particular work was to originate fatat 
epidemics and contagion; J /edo, (from a'krjxTOi), to whom was ascribed the 
devastations and cruelties of war; and Megsera (from ^fyatpw), the author of 
insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them among both the 
Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, if we may con- 
sider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to a separate goddess Fu- 
rina, as some suppose. 

1 u. They were represented with vipers twining among their hair, usually with frightful coun- 
tenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance. 

2. See the Sup. Plate 14, where they are seen in drapery, with the serpetit locks and scorpion 
whips with which the artists represented them. On two vases in ihe Hamilion collection tliey 
have serpents in their hair. In the Sup. Plate 13, they are introduced as lashing a criminal with 
their whips. 

Cf Virg. Georg. iii. 551. .^n. vii. 341, 415. xii. 846. — Ov. Met. iv 474.— Of. C A. Bottiger, Furienmasken im Trauerspiel und 
auf d. Bildweiken d. alt. Griechen ; eine archaeol. L'niersuchuiig Weirii. 1801. 8. — Eanier, sur les Furies, iu Ihe Mem. Acad. Inscr 
col. V. p. 34. 

§ 108 a. The fable of the Harpies, "ApTtutat, seems to have had reference, 
originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which suddenly seizes 
and bears oflT whatever it strikes. Their names were Aello (from atVka, storm), 
Celap.no (from xB'kaivb^, dark), and Ocypeia (from uixrTtifiyj, flyi'>^g rapidly), all 
indicative of the source of the fiction. 

They appear to have been consSdered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, and so 
were called QvcWai {Horn. Od. .\x. 66). They were said to be daughters of Neptune and Terra, 
and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the borders of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the 
Furies, to whom they sometimes bore off the victims they seized. 

They are represented as having the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and 
hands armed with claws, and sometimes as with the tails of serpents. See the Sup. Plate 14. 

Virg.SLu. iii. ^lO.— See Kojj, Wylholug. Briefe. .Stultg. 1827 3 vols. 12.— Lf Clcrc (in the BiLHcthfque Universelle, vol. i p. 148) 
lupposes the Harpies to be merely locuits ; a conjecture which Giilun seenis to approve (Rom. Emp. vol. ii. p. 71. ed. N. Y. 1822;. 

"Ji 108 b. (8) The Venti or Winds. Ii has been already remarked (§ 78) that the 
four jirincipal winds -were at an early period converted into mythical personages. 
Among both Greeks and Romans they gained the rank of deities. 'Ihe Venti, 'Avi 
fmi, were eight ; Evpoj, Eiirus, Soutti-east ; Atrr/Aiojrr;?, Subsolanus, East ; KaiKiui, CcBcias, 
/l^Jij'Zo, North-east ; Bopeag, Borens,]^orth; Sftpoi/, Co/-ms, North-west ; Z€(pvpog, Zephy- 
rus, Orcidn/.s, West; Norog, Notus, Ausler, South; Alip, Libs, Africus, South-west. 

Little is handed down to us respecting the worship paid to the winds. An altar dedicated to 
them was found near Netiuno (cf. $ 78. 3). Pausanias speaks of one erected at the foot of a 
mouniain near Asopus, where annual sacrifices were offered to them at night. The most re- 
markable monument pertaining to these gods is ihe Temple or Tower of the eight Winds at 
Athens, still existing; said to have been erected al)out B. C. 150; a view of it is given in Plate 
XKI tig. 2; see also P. 1. $ 110. 

On each of the eight sides of this tower is represented one of the winds; F.iirvs. as a young man 
flying freely and vigorotisiy ; l^ubsnlavus, a young man holding fruit in the fold of his mantle; 
Aqtiilo, a venerable mar. with a heard, holding a dish of ilives ; Bonas, with boots on his legs, 
muffling hi.s face in a cloak, and flying eagerly; Corns, also wilh boots and cloak, and holding in 
tiis hands an inverted vase of water; Zej>lii/rus,<i yonihwiih naked breast, and carrying flowera; 
^otua. an old man with ulooniy face ; Jifricus. also with melancholy looks and heavy wings 



p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. DAEMONS. MANES. LARES. PENATES. 120 

In our Slip. Plate 20, Zephijrus is seen supporled in the air, in cninpiiiiy with Flora or Chloris, 
to whom he is said to have been married. 

See Porcdlini Lex Tot. Lit. as edited by Bailey, vol. ii. p. IISS. — Leake'n Toiiojraphy of Athens. — Montjaxicon, Ant. Ftp. 
vol. i. p. 413. 

§ 109. (9) The Dasmons or Gtnii, and Mnncs. In the earliest mythologies 
we find traces of a sort of protecting- deities, or spiritual guardians of men, 
called Aatuoj^Ef, or Genii. They were supposed to be always present with the 
persons under their care, and to direct their conduct, and control in great mea- 
sure their destiny, having received this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad dae- 
mons, however, as well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained, 
that every person had one of each class attendant upon him. 

From the notion of an attending genius arose the proverbial expressions indulgere 
ge?iio and defraudare genio, signifying simply to gratify or de?ii/ one's ftelf. 

The doemons of classical mythology must not be confounded with the fallen spirits 
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing men in the time oi 
Christ. 

See Farmer, Essay on Demoniacs. — Letters to Channing on Fallen Spirits, by Canonims. Boston, 1S2S. — Cf. Brownlee, Li^hti 
and Shadows of Christian Life, p. 379. N. York, 1S37. 12. 

§ 110. The May-Its were a similar class of beings. Alt.iough often spoken 
of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more coininonly to have 
been considered as guardians of the deceased, whose office was to watch over 
their graves, and hinder any disturbance of their tranquillity. They were sub- 
ordinate to the authority of Pluto, on which account he is styled Sunnnanus. 
JSome describe a goddess, named Mania^ as their mother. 

1 7/. The Romans designated by the naine oi Lemur es, or LarvcB, such spirits of the 
dead as wandered about in restlessness, disturbing the peace of men, issuing from the 
graves as apparitions to terrify the beholders. 

2. In Plate XXXVL we have one face of a square sepulchral monument found at Brixia, or. 
which two JManes are re()resenled,^each with wings and an inverted torch; a representation not 
uncommon on sucli structures. 

See il/a/(So's Abh. Uber d. Genius der Alten. inhisAfi/JA. Vers. — Simtm, Diss, sur les Leniures, ^^tm. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. — Ov. 
Fast. V. 421.— ^/uiTj, Einleilung in Rom's alte Geschichte. Berl. 1828. 12. 

§ 111. (10) The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary spirits was 
carried further by the Romans than by the Greeks. The former assigned to 
each dwelling and family its guardian deities, which were called Lares and 
Penates. The Lares were said to be sons of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda, 
daughter of Almon. They received a variety of epithets or by-names, accord- 
ing to the particular object, over which they were in different cases supposed to 
preside, as /ami Hares, compitaks, via/es, patellarii, publici, privati. 

1 u. They were especially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and had 
in every house their proper sanctuary {lararium} and altar. I'hey seem to have been 
viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, the fathers and forefathers of the 
family, who sought the welfare of their descendants. 

2. Public festivals were held in their honor, called Com;)i/aha, which were made very joyful 
occasions; the slaves of the family shared liberty and eqtiaiity with their masters, as on the 
Saturnalia. 

The dog was sacred to the Lares, and an imase of this animal was placed by their statues. 
These statues were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even formed in the shape, of dogs. 

T. Hempel, Diss, de Laribus. 2d ed. Z^viccav. m6. S.—yiiUer, as cited ^ 112. 

§ 112. The Penates were also domestic or household gods, but they were not 

properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, because the master of the 

dwelling was allowed to select any deity according to his pleasure, to watch 

over his famil)'^ affairs, -or preside over particular parts of them. Accordingly 

Jupiter and others of the superior gods were not unfreqiiently invoked in this 

capacity. The gods who presided over particular families, were sometimes 

styled /jartv" Penates. While those that presided over cities or provinces were 

f^ty\ed pairii or publici Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to the rank of 

Penates even living persons; especially emperors. 

The Lares and the Penates are often cf>nfnundc(I, but were r'ot the same. "The Penates 
were oriiriiialiy gods, the powers of nature personified; the mysttrinus action of vvhich pro • 
duces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, to the common good, t> tiie prosperity of I'aini 
lies; whatever, in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself The Lares were originally 
themselves human beinjrs, who, becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to hover round the 
(fweliing they opce inhabited; to watch over its aafety, and to guard it as the faithful dog doe* 

12 



130 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the possessions of his master. They keep off danger from without, while the Penates, residing 
in the interior of the dwelling, pour blessings upon its inmates." {Jivth. Lemp.) 

A number of small bronze statues, representing Roman Pevates, were found the last century 
at Exeter, in Ennland. 

Cf. ftrg. /En. ii. 717. iii. \48. — Heyne, Excurs. ix. ad Virg. Mn. ii. — T. Hempd, Diss, de diis Laribus, as cited § HI. — MUllf.r 
dediis Rom Laribus et Penalibus. Hafnias, 1811. 8. — For a notice, with plates, of the statues found at Exeter, see the ■/Irctew*- 
io^i'a, (cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. vi. publ.shed 1786. 

§ 113. (11) Sleep, Dreams, ■awA Death. Among the imaginary beings sup- 
posed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, 'Tyti^o?, 'Oiftpoj, and 
©avatof, gained a personification, being called brothers, sons of Nox or night, 
and ranked among the deities of the lower world. 

1 a. The residence of Sleep, "Ytti/oj, Somnus, was said to be in Ciinmeria, on account 
of the perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region ; and the poppy, on 
account of its soporific qualities, was his common symbol. He is represented as hold- 
ing in his hand a hght inverted and about to be extinguished. 

'I'lie last symbol was also employed in representing edi^aroj, or Death, who was 
often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral monuments, and appeared in a 
similar bodily form, and not a mere naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death 
was the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks ex- 
pressed it by the word Kfip, and they fancied a sort of beings called Krjpcs, who caused 
death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar distinction between mors 
and lethum. 

2. In the representation of Soynvus, given in our Plate XXXVI., he is a young man lying on the 
ground asleep, with one arm on the neck of a lion, and holding the capsule of a "poppy. Tkana- 
los, or Death, stands by him with a scythe and wings, in a robe bespangled with- stars, as he is 
seen in some paintings. 

The Romans imagined death as a goddess. Jl/irs. The poets described her as roving about 
with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and dark wings. She is not often 
found represented on existing monuments of art; in one supposed to represent her, a small 
figure in brass, she appears as a skeleton, sitting on the ground with one hand on an urn. 

Cf. Ov Met. xi. .592, 634, 6i0.- Lesniig's Unlersuchui.g, wie die Allen d. Tod gebildet. Berl. 1769. \.—Herder^s Abh. in his 
Zerstreufen PUittern. Th. 2. 273.— Spcnce, Polynietis, cited P. IV. § 151. 

3. The god oi dreams was "Ovsipoi; (Horn. II. ii. 56), more commonly called Mop(pevg, 
from the various images or forms {iiop(ph) presented in dreaming. Morpheus is some- 
times considered as the god of sleep, but was more properly his minister; Phohetor 
[(poPfiTwp), sometimes considered as the god of dreams, was another minister of Som- 
rius, and Fhantasus {(pajra-M) another. 

Cf. Theory of Dreams, &c., illustrated by the most remarkable dreams recorded in History. Lond. 1808. 12. . 

§ 114. (12) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the forests and 
woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, took its rise in the ear- 
liest ages either from the custom of wearing skins of animals for clothing, o) 
in a design to represent symbolically the condition of man in the semi-barbarons 
or half-savage state. The Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, 
in their representation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a 
buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Fanes, which 
had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of the brute. 

1 u. The Fauns v/ere represented as older than the Satyrs, who, when they became 
old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans represented the Satyrs more like beasts, 
and as having the goat's feet. The Satyrs, Faitns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to 
the retinue of Bacchus C?* 60). 

2 II. The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived from a national god Fajnus, 
who was son ol' Picus (king of the Latins) and the nymph Canens {Ov. Met. xiv. 
320, 336), and whose wife Fauna was also honored as a goddess. 

See Heynt's Alih. vnn Unlerscliied. zvvischen Faun Sat. Silen. und Panen, in his Samml. Jlnt. Jlufi'dlze. Found also in H'VjicA- 

thnann, Histoire de I'Art (ciltd P. IV. § 32) vol. i. p. 680. Ueber Faun Sat. Pan. und Silenen. Berl. 1790-91. 8.— Kosf, Myth. 

Briefe. 

^. 115. (13) The Gor<rflns. Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Fhorcys and 
Cete, were termed ropyoi^cg, from their frightful aspect. Their heads were said t(i be 
covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the t\isks of a boar, and so 
lerrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. '1 hey are described as having the 
liead, i:eck, and breasts of women, while the rest of the body was in the form of a 
serpent. According to some they had but one eye ard one tooth, common to <hem 
hII. which they were obliged to use in turn. Their names were Slheno, pAiryale, and 
Mfdvsa. Medusa is said "to have been slain by Perseus, who cut ofi' her head, while 
Ihey were in the act of exchanging the eye. 

They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. But their 
•esidence is variously assigned ; some placing them in a distant part of the western 



p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. AMAZONS, ETC. 131 

ocean, others in Lybia (cf. P. I. '^^ 179), and others in Scythia. Some have ex- 
plained the fable as referring to a warhke race of women, like the Amazons. Others 
suppose it to have had some reference to the moon as a dark body, which is said also 
to have been called Topyhioj, from the face beheved to be seen in it. 

Massieit, sur les Hesperides, and sur les Gorgones, in the Mtm- Jcad [nsa: vol. iii. p. 2S, 51. ' 

^116. (14) The Amazons. The Amazons were no doubt mythical be'ngs, al- 
though said to be a race of warhke women, who lived near the river 'i'hermodon in 
'7'appadocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. '1 hey are said 'o have 
burnt off their right breast, that they might use the bow and javelin with more skill 
and force ; and hence their name, ' Xuia]6v£i, from a and iialoi. They are mentioned in 
the Iliad (iii. 189. vi. 186) and called avrid'eipai. 

Various explanations of the fable are given. Some consider it as having a connec- 
tion originally with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Amazons were 
placed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus {Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8), and may have 
represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her own attributes. 

A figure resembling an Amazon, but having four arms, is seen in the caverns of Elephanta. — In our Sup. Plate 22, an Amazon is 

represented with her bow and quiver of arrows. Traditions respecting a race of Amazons are said to be still current in the 

region of Caucasus. Cf. Edinh. Rev. No Ivi. p. 324. On the Amazons, see Crctizti's Synibolik. 

§ 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particuLrly several Monsters, 
which are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology. 

(a) The Minotaur was said to be half man and halt bull. The story is. that Minos, 
king of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautilul white bull, which was de- 
manded by the god. The angry god showed his displeasure by causing Pasiphae, the 
wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through the aid of Daedalus, and give 
birth to the monster. Minos confined the Alinotaur m the tamous labyrinth. Here 
the monster devoured the seven yoimg men and the seven maidens annually required 
from the Athenians by Minos. 

- Theseus, bv the aid of the king's daughter. Ariadne, slew the Minotaur and escaped the laby- 
rinth (cf. $ 125). 

[h) The Chimcsra was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and hon united: the 
middle of the body was thai of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, the fore 
parts those of a lion ;. and it had the heads of all three, and was continually vomiting 
forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia, in the reign of Jobates, king of thai 
country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratily his son-in-law 
Praetus, sends him against the Chimaera; but Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva, 
and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, destroyed the monster. 

This table is by some supposed to refer to a volcanic mountain on the I^ycian coast. — See Clarke''s Travels, pt. ii. sect. ii. ch. 8. 
(vol. iii. p. 211. ed. N. York, 1815). — Plin. N. Hist. v. 27 —£anie>; and Frtrct, on Bellerophon, in the Mtm. Mad. laser, vii. 
37, 69. 

(c) The Centauri were said to be half rnen and half horses. Some make them the 
offspring of Ixion and the cloud ; others refer their origin to the bestiality of Centau- 
rus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaly. The principal inci- 
dents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at the marriage of 
Pirithous and Hippodamia. and the consequent battle with the Lapithae, who drove 
them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwHrds chiefly destroyed by Hercules. {Ov. 
Met. xii. 530.) — Some have imagined this fable to allude to the dramiug of the low 
parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general symbolical of water. 

Knight's Inquiry, &c. in the Class. Journal.— Ci. Mitford, ch. I. sect. 3.—Bnnier, La Fable des Cent, in the Mem. Acad. Insa; 
ai. 18. 

{d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirlioe, and 
to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades, 
where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and guarded by 
a two-headed dog called Orthos. 

The destruction of this monster formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules ($ 123). 

(p) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads 
nine accordiiig to the common account. When one of these heads was cut oil", an 
other or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the wound was 
stopped by fire. 

The destruction of the Hydra was another labor assigned to Hercules, which he acconiplishea 
hy the aid of lolans, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron as each head was removed. 
The a; rows of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. 

if) Pesosus was not so much a monster as a prodio-y, beins a winged horse sam tu 
have sprung from the llood, which fell on the frroun^l when Perseus cut off -he head 
of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Hc^licon. where he opened the lountain 
called Hinpocrene (iWof and Kp'uri). He was a favorite of the muses, and is cqilled " tlie 
muses' horse." The horse, having come info the possession of Bellerophon, enaj)le(l 
him to overcome the Chimaera. .Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from .lupuer. 



]32 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

vhrevv off Bellerophon to wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place aiTiong 
the stars. 

An engraving is given by Winckelmann of a beautiful bas-relief in white marble, representing Rellerophon and Pegasus; the 
sriginal, preserved in the palace of Spada at Rome, is of the natural size. — See lVnichehna7\n, Hist, de I'Art, vol. ii. p. 652. iii, 2i\. 
—Of. Fraiictsur, L'ranographie ou Traite Elemenlaire d'Astroiiomie. Par. 1818. 8. containing the ancient Fables respecting Ibt 
Constellations. 

(o) Cerbems was the fabled dog of Pluto (§ 34), stationed as oentinel at the entrance 
of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, sometimes as having fifty. 
Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from tlie world of the living could pass 
him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific 
ingredients. ( Virg. JEn. vi. 420.) 

To seize and bring up this monster was a.ssigned to Hercules as one of his labors. 

{h) Scylla and Charyhdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian shore, in 
the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirlpool or strong eddy 
over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected a fabulous story with each 
name. — Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but was changed by Circe into a 
monster, the parts below her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking, 
while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified 
at this metamorphosis, ^he threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks 
which bear her name. — Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Her- 
cules, and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. 

Cf. firgil, Mn. iii. 420ss.— Ouid, Metam. xiv. 66. — Propert. iii. II. — Hyginus, fab. 199. 

(?) The Sphinx was the offspring of Orthos and Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna ; 
a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, ihe tail of a 
serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. This monster 
infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants 
who could not explain them. At length one of the enigmas, in which she demanded 
what animal it w-as which walked on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three 
at night, was solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning 
of life creeps upon his hands and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening 
of his days uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphnx instantly destroyed 
herself. 

In Plate VIII. are given two images of the Sphinx. One is without wings ; having a peculiar 
Egyptian head-dress; from a sculptured monument given by Bols.sard. The other is from an 
engraved gem, given by Maffei ; having the calathus on her head, and the sistrum in her paw. 

Representations of the Sphinx are very common anions: Egyptian monuments. A very celebrated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet 
remains near the pyramids. It is cut in the solid lock, and is 125 ftet in length. — Clarhe^s Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch. 4. — Denon's 
Travels (vol. i. p. 55. Lond. IS04).— Lo?2d. Quart. Rev. xix. 163, 403 ss. 

(k) The Oriffon (Tpvxp) was an imaginary animal, said to be produced from a lion and an 
eagle, and supposed to watch over mines of gold and whatever was hidden. Its image is some- 
times found on ancient medals ; the upper part resembling an eagle, the lower part a lion. 

Cf. Fi7-ji7,Ecl.viii. 27. — Hnodolus, iii. 116. — Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 49. — M. F. Grafen von feltheim, Voii den Greifeti der Alten. 
Helmst. 1799. 8. 

(I) In the Greek mythology Typhon is ranked among the Giants; by some considered to be the 
same as Typhcous (cf. $ 98); by others distinguished from him; said to have been produced from 
the earth by Juno's striking it ; described as having a hundred heads like those of a dragon. — 
In Egyptian mythology the monster called Typhon holds an important place, being considered as 
the cause of all evil, "the Egyptian devil." (Fosbroke.) He is described and represented in va- 
rious ways; sometimes as with a hundred drngoi) heads; sometimes as a wnlf; sometimes as a 
crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a crocodile with the head and fore-legs of the hippopotamus, 
as seen in our Pla'e VIII. 



IV. — Mythical History of the Heroes. 



§ 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinortiished even by the ancients : 
the unknown^ ahrp^ov, of which no historical monuments remained to make known 
the state of society ; the fabulous^ y.v^ix6v, of which the accounts left are mingled 
with manifold fictions; and the hifitoricnl, tatopixbv, of which a crennine and 
trustworthy history is recorded. The first extends to the dehig-e of Deucalion, 
the second lo the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third 
cnrough the subsequent -times. To the second of these periods belonfred the 
Heroes, as they are called,* and it is on that account often styled the heroic age. 
These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary powers of body 
Tnd mind, and distinoruished merit is ascribed to them as having founded cities 



r II HEROES. PERSEUS. 133 

or countries, improved their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or do* 
fended them. 

§ 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progenitors was a 
most common cause of the sort of deification with which these heroes were 
publicly honored after death ; and the disposition towards this aratefiil remem- 
brance was quickened and sustained by oral traditions respectino; then deeds, 
which were much adorned and exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that 
most of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter 
himself. The veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less uni- 
versal than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were 
established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and public, 
solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, received only an 
annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and 
libations were presented to them. Sometimes, ho'vever, the respect paid them 
exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the 
gods. The introduction of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to 
Cadmus. 

Cf. Virg. ^n.iii. SO\.—SaUier, in the Hist, de VAcad- ics In or. vol. iv. p. 299. 

§ 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some were viewed 
as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal existence watched over 
their families and friends and were honored and worshiped only by thera. 
Others, whose services while they lived were of a more extended character, 
were worshiped by whole states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had 
their appropriate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To 
such was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the 
latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illus- 
trious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, but was adopted also 
among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be mentioned, in doing 
which the order of time will be followed. 

§ 121. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked among the 
Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same class, too, belong 
Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son Fhoroneus, to whom various 
merits were ascribed ; and Ogyges, a king of Boeotia, memorable from the flood 
which occurred in his reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among 
their respective people and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state; Deu' 
calion^ a Thessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general floo^ 
that happened in his times ; AmpJiidyon, author of the celebrated council o 
confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus^ who came from Phoenici:\ 
to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve the people (cf. P 
IV. § 34; /)anaus, to whom the kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advance- 
ment; Bellerophon, wlio was said to have destroyed the monster Chimaera, and 
to have performed other exploits ; Pe/o/)s, king in Elis, from whom Pelopon- 
nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula; and the two 
princes of Crete by the name of Minus, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other 
as a warrior. 

Some writers argue agiinst the existence of two individuals by the name of Minos. — See F{ock\ Kreta. Gotting. IS23. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 122. Perseus was one of the mostjdistinguished of the early heroes. He 
was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Polydectus on the island Se- 
riphus. His chief exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, whose 
head he struck off with a sword given to him by V^ulcan. From the blood 
that fell, sprang the winged horse Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed 
over many lands. 

1 u. Of his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing king 
Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, and his deiiveravice 
of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be devoLired by tlic sea- monster. In con- 
nection with the latter adventure he also changed into s'one Phineus, who contended 
with him for the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon 
Polydectes tor ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascril)ed the invention of 
the discus or quoit, with Vv'hich he inadvertently occasioned the death of his grandfatlier 
Acrisijs. Finally he founded the kingdom of Mycenas. After his assassination bv 



/34 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Megapejithes, ne was placed among t'ne constellations, and several lemplcs were 
erected to him. besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. (Cf. Ov. Met. iv. 
603. V. 1-350.) 

2. The fal)les respecting Perseus are by some considered as a nioditication of tlie story of the 
Persian Mithras (cf $35), and a piece of ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel 
of MyceticE has been thought to confirai the analogy. — Creuzer, Symbolik. — Gell, Itinerary of 
Greece. 

3. Atlas, whom on account of his refusing hospitaliiy to Perseus, the latter is said 
to have changed into a mountain, is described as the son of Japetus and the knig of 
Maurctania. He owned numerous flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding 
with citrons and oranges. His seven daughters, renowned for beauty and wisdom, 
were called Atlantides Irom their father, and'Hesperides (rom their mother Hesperis. 
The gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were said to he guarded by a dread- 
ful dragon that never slept. The name oi Atlas was given to the chain of mountains 
in that part of Africa, and to the ocean on the west. Whether irom reference to the 
height of those mountains or to the astronomical researches of the king, Atlas is said 
to have supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have represented him as bear- 
ing an immense sphere on his shoulders. 

Thus he is seen in the Sup. Plate 22. On some monuments, Hercules :s represented in a similar wa; because, as is said, he eased 
Atlas of his burden — Cf. Ogle, Ant Expl. plale 35. 

§ 123. Of all the Grecian heroes, no one obtained such celebrity as Her- 
cules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful streno^th was ascribed to him 
even in his infantile years. Eurystheus kingr of Mycense imposed upon him 
many difficult enterprises, which he carried throuorh with success; particularly 
those, which are called the twelve labors of Hercules. These were : to kill the 
Nemaean lion ; to destroy the Lernaean hydra ; to catch alive the Stag with 
ti'olden horns; to catch the Erymanthean boar; to cleanse the stables of Au- 
^ias ; to exterminate the birds of lake Stymphalis ; to hrinij alive the wild bull 
of Crete ; to seize the horses of Diomedes ; to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, 
queen of the Amazons; to destroy the nionster Geryon ; to plunder the g'arden 
of Hesperides, gfuarded by a sleepless dragon; and to bring from the infernal 
world the three-headed dog Cerberus. 

These various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion in the poets. 
The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. The twelve labors are described in 12 verses 
in the M Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf. P. V. $ 81).— The story of Hercules strangling the serpents while 
an infant is given in the 24th Idyl of Theocritus. 

^ 124 u. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he gave proof of his ex- 
traordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer of the oppressed.. 
Such were, his slaying the robber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of 
Prometheus, i)0un'd to a rock; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus; the contest with 
Achelous ; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less honorable was hia 
lovfe of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank into the most unworthy efl'emi- 
nacy. His last achievement was the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying 
gave his poisoned tunic to Dejanira ; Hercules afterwards receiving it from her, and 
putting it on, became so diseased that he cast himself in despair upon a funeral pile on 
mount (Eta. 

The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were erected to his 
honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great many surnames and epithets 
from his exploits and from the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded 
the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and 
they very often employed them. 

Two of the most celebrated antique statues represent Hercules ; the Turso. or Herculese Belvidere, and the HercuJf-^ Farnese ; cf. 
P IV. ^ IS6. 6, 7. The latter represents him leaning upon his club, as it were after his labors. A view of it is given in Plate XLIV. 
fig. 6, copied from VVinckelmann. An engraving of the same is given in the Sup. Plale 22. The other representation in this Plate 
»hows the infant Hercules strangling the serpent ; from an antique sculpture. 

For other principal representations nf Hercules, see Montfaiicmi, Ant. F.xpl. T. i. pi. 123. 141, and Ogle's Ant. Expl. No. 31-10.— 
See also Laiir. Bezerx, Hercules Ethnicoruiri, ex. var antiq. reliquiis dt-liiieatus Col. March. 1705. fol. — Heynii Not. ad Apollodor. 
p. 325 — /. Gurlitl's Fragment, d. archaeol. Abhandl. (lb Hercules. Magd. tSCO. 4 — Ph. ButtniaiiT), Ober d. M)fhos des Herakles. 
Berl. ISIO. S.— Dupuis, Orig. de ions les cult. vol. ii — Resp cling the ancient writers on the Mylhol. of Hercules, see MUlltr's Hist, 
and Antiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. lS3n. vol. i. p 523. 

Among thr-. various solutions of the story of Hercules, there is one which very ingeniously applies the account of his twelve labort 
tr the passage of the sun through the twelve >igns of the Zodiac. A view of this i.s given in Jiiithoii's I.empriere. 

§ 125. Thesels, a son of i^oreus and ^Ethra, or according to others a son of 
Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to engage in enterprises ih' 
most hazardous, and he stVcessfuUy accomplished them. Among these wa? 
ilie extermination of a multitude of robbers and assassins that infested Greece. 
Uid especially the destruction of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, tc 



p. II. HEROES. JASON. CASTOR AND POLLUX. ISf) 

which the Athenians had prev'ously been compelled to send seven male youth 
and as many youncr viro-ins annually, to be devoured by him. By the help of 
Ariadne, a daufjhter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the windiny of the 
labyrinth, in which the monster Irad his abode, and put him to death. Ariadne 
accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he ungratefully deserted her on 
the island of Naxos. 

§ 1-26 u. The oiher principal exploits of Theseus were his descent to the lower world 
with his friend Pirithoas, his victory over the Amazons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyia 
became his wife, and the assistance he gave Adrasius, i\ing of Argos, against the The- 
ban prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislaiion and 
the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for some time an exile. '1 he 
manner of his death is variously related, but it seems by all accounts to have been 
caused by violence. 

The honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple 
was consecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called OiVaa, lield on 
the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular sacrifice termed Oy'66iov. 
ProMsion was made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festivities 
of this occasion. 

Cf. Pint, in yu. Thes.—Dind. Sic. L. iv. c 61.— Ou. Metam. vii. 404 ; viii. 152; xii. 210.— Mil ford's Greece, cti. i. sect, 3.— For 
a view of the leniple of Ttieseus, see Plate XXI. fi; 3, 

§ 127. .Tason and the Argonauts. One of the most celebrated enterprises of 
the heroic acres, one which forms a memorable epoch in the G-recian history, a 
sort of separation-point between the fabulous and the authentic, was the Aro-o- 
nautic expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain 
the golden fleece, conducted hy Jason, the son of ^E son, king of Thessaly. 
The undertaking was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited the 
most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and amono- those 
who joined him were Hercules^ Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirilhovs, and The- 
seus. The vessel built for the purpose was named Ariro, which after various 
adverse events arrived at .-Ea, the capital of Colchis. .-Eetes was then king of 
Colchis, and promised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most diflicult 
conditions. 

§ 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet ^Eetes was unwilling 
to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his com- 
panions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king's daughter, by whose 
assistance and magical art Jason slew the dragon that .guarded the fleece, and 
seized the treasure. He immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was pur- 
sued by her father. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse 
into pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's pursuit. 
Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married C^reusa, or, as others name 
her, Glance, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took vengeance by 
causing the death of Creusa and also of the children she had iierself born to 
Jason. After death Jason received the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a 
temple at Ahdera. 

See the poeius on the Arson. Exped, by Orphetu, Apollortius Rhndiiis, and Valerius Flaccus, (Cf. P. V. §§ 4", 73, J76.) — Banicr^ 
on the Argon. Ex[)ed. in Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol iy p. 54 ; xii. .'2J; xiv. 41. — Heyiiii Not. ad Apollodor. p. 177. — C. P- 
Levesque, sur le Retour des Argonauts, in the M.ni. de lliislilut. C 1 a s s e d. Sciences Mur. et Pol. vol iv. 

Variniis explanations have been put upon the story of the Ar^imauts. One writer tiiinks the 
golden fleece was the raw silk nf ihe East. Ha^er, I'antheon Chiiiois.'— Another thini<s tlie pnrase 
arose from the hnliit of collecting sold, washed down from the mountains, by putting sheepskins 
in the channel of the streams. Mitford, ch. i. seCt. 3. — Bryant (Anal. Anc. Myth.) considers the 
whole story as a tradition of the flood. 

§ 129. CASTOrt and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, were twin sons 
of Jupiter and Leda, and brothers to Helena. On account of their descent, 
they were called Dioscuri (Atoczovpot), although, according to some. Castor 
was the son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. (Jastor distinguished himself 
in the manaorement of horses, and Pollux in boxing and wrestling. The last 
exploit of the Dioscuri was their contest with Lynceus and fiis brother Idas. 
Castor was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux : and as Idas was aboni 
to avenge the death of his brother, .lupiter smote him with liijhtning. — Pollux 
obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and immortality in cnnjunclion 
with his brother Castor. Both were placed among the constellation's and re- 
presented by the Gemini or twins in the zodiac. Both the Greeks and tii'' 



136 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

llomans consecrated temples to them, and they were especially invoked anc 
worshiped by mariners. 

1. They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from having cleared the 
Hellespont and the neigliboruig seas iroin puales. '1 liey were invoked as Attotpottoi, 
averlers of evil : and white lambs were sacririced to them. — 'l he Romans honored them 
especially for services supposed to be received irom them in piessing dangers, as in the 
battle with the Latins near lake Regillus. 'Ihey constantly swore by their names ; the 
oath used by the women was ^castor, or by tiie temple of Castor; that of the men 
was JEdtpol, or by the temple of Pollux. 

Represen'a'ioiia of Castor and Pollux are found particularly on Roman monuments. A fine representation, drawn from 2 large 
gem ^iven by Mafi'ei, is seen in our Sup. Plate 21. 

2. The fisstival called Dioscuria {6ioaKovpid) was in honor of these brothers, celebrated 
especially l)y the Spartans. On this occasion the gilts of Bacchus were very ireely 
shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor ot Castor and Pollux, which 
Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoted friend Cliius. — This festival 
is supposed by some to have had the same origin as the iamous mysteries of the Cabiri, 
which were celebrated particularly at Sainothrace, and were thought to have great effi- 
cacy in protecting from shipwreck and storms. 

An ancient structure now exists at Salonica, whicli is supposed to tiave been a Cabirian Temple : see Plate V. — Cf. G. S. Faier, 
Mysteries of the Cabiri. Oxf. Ife03. 2 vols. 8.—Frt>-eC, Les Cabires, in the Mem. Acad, laser, vol. xxvii. p. 9 

$ 130 ti. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of Greece, the war of 
Thebes, which is aated upwards of 1200 years belore Christ, is much celebrated. 
Withoiit relating its incidents we shall here only name some of the principal lieroes of 
the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, the two sons of (Edipus, king 
of Thebes, whose own private story was so tragical. The war arose irom the dissen- 
sion of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were afterwards 
honored as demigods. Several famous chiefs, as Cupa?ieus, Tydeus, Hivpoinedon, 
Parthenovceus, united with Adrastus, king of Argos and iather-in-law of Polynices, to 
take partin the war. The events connected with it furnished the poets with matter 
for numerous tragedies. — The second enterprise against Thebes, ten years later, was 
more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons and 
descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the war of the 
'Eniyoyoi. The most illustrious of these were Alcmaeon, Thersander, Polydorus, and 
Thesimenes. 

The Theban war was one of the favorite themes of ancient poets, ^ntimaclnts of Colophon, 
a Greek poet, and contemporary with Choeriins, wrote a poem in twenty-four books on the sub- 
ject ; the fragments have been collected. Cf. P. V. $ 19. — The poem of the Latin poet Stattud is 
still extant. Cf P. V. $ 378. 

Cf. Paus. ix. 25.— Apollod. i. 3.—Dwd. iv.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. \.—KcigMley''s Mythology. 

$ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were involved in contention and calamity, Tanta- 
lus, and his descendants the Tanlalides, were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, occasioned 
by the impiety of this prince, who was said to be a son of .Iiipiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being 
of immortal descent, he was honored with a visit from the gods during an excursion they made 
upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served nji among other 
meats the limbs of his son Pelops, whom he had cruelly murdered. The gods perceived his 
perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish; hut Ceres, whom the recent loss of her 
daughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the shoulders. In con)passion to 
the fate of the young prince, Jupiter restored him to life; and instead of the shoulder which 
Ceres had devoured, substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing by its 
touch all kinds of diseases. 

As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell ($ 34) with an insatiable 
hunger and thirst in the midst of abundance. — He had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to 
her intolerable vanity. She was married to Amphion, a prince of Thebes in BoBotia ; and having 
a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with over- 
bearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, who ($ 38) 
destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris (cf $ 38). Niobe, after the death of her 
children, returned to Lydia, and ended her days near Mt. Sipylus ; according to the fables, she 
was so shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. '• On Mt. Sipylus, acctird- 
ing to Paiisanias, was to be seen a rock which from a distance resembled a woman in deep me- 
lancholy, though near at hand it had not the most remote resemblance to one." 

P'%i.ops quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the 
daughter of king a^^nomaus; but tliis monarch, having been informed that he should perish by the 
hand of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in 
the chariot race ; and those who entered the list were to f rfeit their lives if conquered. Un- 
daunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he 
previously bribed Myrtiles, the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the axle-tree of the cha- 
riot in such a manner as to break it on the course , and the unfortunate kinsi. being thrown to 
the- ground, killed himself Q':nomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who 
acqitired great celebrity, atid gave his name to the peninsula in the southern ;)art of Greece. 
Pelops, after death, received di-vine hormrs. He had an altar in the grove All is at Olympia, and 
was much revert^l, even ahovn other heroes {Pivd. Olvmp. i. 146. Pausan. v. 13). Ilis descend- 
ants were called PelopidcB. Flis two sons, Atreiis and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual 
hatred and crimes. lUn his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Jltridw, ai;quired p 
vnra honorable renown. 



: -*. HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR. 137 

§ 132 21. Heroes of the Trojan War. Of all the wars of Grecian story, none is 
more famous than that of Troy, which was the first miHtary campaign of the Greeks 
out of the Hmits of their own country. 'I'he immediate occasion ot it was the seizure 
of flelen. wife of Menelaus, king of Lacedoemon, by Paris, son of Priam, king of 
Troy. The siege continued, according to the common account, including the prepara- 
tion and marches, ten years, with various successes and disasters, un.il at last the Greeks 
became masters of the city by stratagem. The chiefs who were engaged in ihis enter- 
prize acquired the highest renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured 
their everlasting remembrance. The chief commander was Aga/nem?M?t, and the more 
illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, Dlomedcs, Mendaus, Ajux 
son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, Idomeneus, and Neslor. On the side of the 
Trojans, Hector, JE?ieas, and Ante7ior were among the most celebrated. 

The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself than for iis consequences. It 
gave a new spring to Grecian culture (cf P. IV. § 40). The arts of war were greatly 
improved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took place in most of tlie states. 
But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales. 

See Mitfmrd, ch. i. sect. 4. — Gillies, cti. i. iii. — Clas^. Jouni. v. 14, 18. vi. 25. ix. 605, 626. xviii. 141. — Chanaler, History oi 
Froy. See references given in P. V. § .60. 7. — Bryanl (in a Dissertation on the war of Troy, L,ond. 1799. 4) has maintaine' that 
he whole tale is a mere fablf, and that there never was any such war. 

^ 133. Although the personages specially called Heroes in Grecian story belonged to 
the period termed the heroic age (cf § 118); yet under our fourth division of the subject 
of Mythology (cf. ^ 10) will properly fall the names of a multitude of personages of 
later periods, including Romans as well as Greeks, who after their death were deified 
in the country where they lived, or had become, renowned (cf ^ 88. 2, and 89. 3) for 
memorable attainments or achievements. Merely to have been a king or ruler was 
sufficient to secure deification among a people fond of the pageantry of superstition. 
This servile and impious adulation was particularly practiced by the Asiatic Greeks 
towards the successors of Alexander. Mere governors of provinces were sometimes thus 
'honored. After the Roman imperial power was established, it became a regular cus- 
tom (cf. ^ 94) to deify the emperors. 

Tlie Roman senate made it their business by solemn decree to place every deceased en.peror 
in the number of the gods, and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of hi.«. 
funeral. But as the actions of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was impos- 
sible to connect with the deified name such fabulous and mysterious tales as to give the diviui- 
ties, thus established by law, much hold upon the popular feelings. The list of imperial demi- 
gods, therefore, is of comparatively little importance in a view of the ancient tnythology. 

This deification of the emperors, if is very likely, gave rise to llie Itatificatinn of saints, practiced by the Roman Catholics. 
See Middleton's Letter from Rome, showing the conformily between Popery and Pagaiiisiri, 1 ind. 1729. 4. 6th ed. 1825 ^ 
Also in his Miscellaiiecna Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8. — Cf. Gibbon. Dec!, and Fall, &c. ch. iii. 
ilespecting the ceremonies attending the Apolhe.z^ij, or Constaratio, see P, III. §^3iS. 



PLATE XV a. 



Gods of the Greeks and Bomans, as classed in the preceding Sketch. 



1. Superior Gods. 
Jupiter Juno 
Neptune Minerva 
Apullo Diana 
Mars Venus 
Mercury Vesta 
Vulcan Ceres 
Janus Rhea 
Saturn 
Pluto 
Bacchus 



2. Inferior Gods. 

CobIus Several Gods 

S..1 If""" ,'" 

^olus (cf. §8S); 

Plutus Enyo 

yEsculapius ErL'ane 



Pan 

Luna 

Aurora 

Nox 

Iris 

Latona 

Themis 

Nemesis 

Fortuna 

Fania 



Cotytto,&c. 

Sfveral Gods 
peculiar to 
Ihe Konians 
(cf. § 89) ; 

Priapus 

Terminus 

Vertuniiius 

Pomona 

Flora 

Feronia 

Pales, &c. 



3. Mythical Beings. 


4. Deified Heroes. 


Titans 


Manes 


Inachus 


Hercules 


rjiants 


Lares 


Phoroneus 


TiiHseus 


Pygmies 


Penates 


Oj:yges 


Jason 


Tritons 


Satyrs 


Cecrops 


Castor 


Sirens 


Fauns 


Deucalion 


Pollux 


Nymphs 


Gor{!ons 


Amphictyon 


and 


Muses 


Amazons 


Cadmus 


Heroes 


Graces 


Centaurs 


Danaus 


of Ihe 


Hours 
Seasons 


Minotaur 
Chimiera 


Pelops 
Minos 


Theban 
ai.d the 


Fates 


Geryon 


Perseus 


wars, &C. 


Furies 


Hydra 






Harpies 


Pejjasus 






Winds 


Scylla 






Genii 


Charybdis 






Somiius 


Sphinx 






Mors 


Typhon 







The Gods as classed by the Greeks. 



Superior Godii, called 
MeydXoi Qeoi. 



Jupiter 


Juno 


Saturn 


Aurora 


Neptune 


Ceres 


Bacchus 


Themis 


Apollo 


Diana 


.'Eolus 


Luna 


Mercury 


Minerva 


jEsculapius 


Nox 


Mars 


Vesta 


Helius or 


Iris 


Vulcan 


Venus 


Sol 


Hebe 






Pluto 


Tyche 






Pan 


Latona 






Plutus 


Nemesis 
Fama 



Inferior Gods, called simply Qeoi, and 
sometimes Aaiixuveg. 

The Mythir-al Be- 
ini^s named 

alinve; Titans, 
Giants, &c 

The Gods peculiar 
to the Greeks 
(cf. §88), except 
such as fall into 
the class of De- 
migods. 



Demigods, called 'HiAideoi. 



Here fall Ina- 
chu'i, Ferseus, 
and all named 
above, under 
Heroes. 

Here also some- 
times Saturn, 
Bacchus, iEo- 
lus, and other 
gods are put. 



The Theban Heroes 
are^- 

Capaneus 
Tydeus 
Polynices 
Thersander, &c. 

The Trojan Heroes 
are — 

Agamemnon 

Achilles 
Ulysses 
Diomedes 
Ajax, &c. 



The Gods as classed by the Romans. 



Dii Majorum Gentium. 



L Connentes. 


2. Selecti 


Jupiter 


Saturn 


Neptune 


Pluto 


Apollo 


Sol 


Mercury 


Janus 


Mars 


Bacchus 


Vulcan 


Genius 


Juno 


Rhea 


Ceres 


Luna 


Diana 




Minerva 




Venus 




Vesta 





Dii Minorum Gentium. 



1. Seviones, 
Guardians over 
particular ob- 
jects ; as 

Pan 

PllJttIS 

il^olus, Sec. 

Here also 

Vertumnus 
Terminus, 

atid most of Ihe 
Gods peculiar 
to ihe Romans 
(cf. § 89). 
Here also the 
Mythical Be- 
inis (cf. § Si). 



2. .Miscellanei, 

Personificaiions of 
various objects; as 

Virtus 

Fides 

Honor 

Spes 

Pietas 

Bt'llona 

Febris 

Mephitis 

Victoria, &;c. 



3. Perenrrini. 

Gods from other 
n:»iions ; as 

Mithras 

Osiris 

Isis 

Apis & Mnevis 

Serapis 

Anubis 

Harpocrates 

Canopus, &.c. 



4. IrtdigeUg, 
or Adscriptitii ; 

Hercules 
Castor 
Pollux 
^iieag 
Romulus or 
Qiiirinus, &c. 

Also deified Empe- 
rors, &c. 



Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed according to supposed Residence. 



Celestial. 
Jupiter Venus 



Apollo 

Mercury 

Mars 

Vulcan 

Cupid 



Vesta 

Aurora 

Iris 

Hebe 

Psyche 



Hymenaeus HorsE 
Juno Seasons 

Minerva Graces 
Diana Muses 

The Muses sometimes rank- 
ed with Ihe Terrestrial. 



Terrestrial. 
Terra 
Cybele 
Ceresi 
Saturn* 



Janus> 

Bacchus" 

Terminus 



Pomona 

Pales 

Feronia 

Pan 

Silenus 

Satyrs 

Fauns 



Vertumnus Lares 
Priapus Nymphs 
Flora Penates, &c 

' Ranked sometimes with the 
Celestial. 



Marine. 
Oceanus Tethys 



Neptune 
Mollis 
Proteus 
Phorcys 



Amphitrite 
Matuta 
Ino or 
Leucothoe 



Porinmnus Sirens 
Nereus Nereids 
Triton Scylla 

Glancus Charybdis 
Palaemon 
Tritons 



Infernal. 
Pluto Proser- 

Charon pine 
Minos Nemesis 

Rhada- Mors 
manlhus Manes 
j'Eacus Na-nia* 
Cerberuu Parcae 
Nox Furies 



» Goddess of Funerals. 



PART TIL 



GREEK AND SOMAN ANTIQUITIES 



PLATE XVI 




i4(i 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. Gr.^cia is by some supposed to have derived its name fron. Graicus, ii 
8on of Thessalus, his descendants beintr called Graici^ Tpaixot. The Graici. 
however, were only a single tribe of the inhabitants, some of whom planted 
themselves in Italy. The country originally seems to have had no common 
name, comprehending properly all its tribes. Graecia was a name used hy the 
Romans, not by the inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, 
from Hellen, a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the 
people were called by the ancient writers Acha^ans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes, 
Pelasgians, and lonians. These names of the country and the occupants, 
however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but seem to have re- 
ferred in their general application chiefly to the more important colonies or com- 
munities, which originally occupied and peopled the land. 

§ '2t. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was bounded on 
three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which were distinguished by the 
names of ^Egean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic; and on the north extended to 
the chain of mountains called Orbelus (cf. P. I. § 77) separating it from Meesia. 
Taken in this extent, it is naturally divided into four parts; ^Macedonia; Thes- 
salia and Epirus; Hellas; and Peloponnesus (cf. P. I. § 7G). Taken in a more 
limited sense, excluding Macedonia, it was sometimes divided into two parts ; 
Graecia Propria (including Thessalia and Epirus, and Hellas); and the Pelo- 
ponnesus. In the most limited sense, however, it included merely Hellas, 
which is perhaps usually meant by the .restrictive phrase Graecia Propria. The 
name of Greeks was also applied to the inhabitants of (irecian colonies in 
Asia, in Italy, and in Africa. 

§ 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were distinguished 
for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, in Attica; Sparta or La- 
cedeemon, in Laconia ; Argos, Mycenae, and Corinth, in the territory of Argolis; 
Thebes, in Boeotia ; Megalopolis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or 
colonial cities of the Greeks were the following; Miletus and Ephesus in 
Ionia; Mitylene, Chios, Samos, and Rhndus, in the islands near Asia Miner; 
Byzantium on the Thracian coast ; Corcyra on the island of that name ; Ta- 
rentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy; Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, 
and Leontium in Sicily; Syrene in Africa. In later times Alexandria in Egypt. 
Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as 
Grecian cities. 

§ 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course cf its his 
tory, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic I'ges. the several tribeti 
or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subse- 
q\iently monarchies properly so called were established in Sicyon, Arors, Attica. 
Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedaemon, P]lis, TKtolia, yEgialea, or 
Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most fiourishintr condition during the 
lime of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — The Acl aean and Elolirin 
league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political cnnstiiution of the Greeks in 
Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. 

§ 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probubly casne frr.m Thrace iuid 
who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. IV. § 33, 3i) and tlie Hellenes, 
lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relaiions or even couni on 
Idws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, an«^ 

141 



142 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

wore exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighborino- islands. 
Colonies from Ks'ypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, ^ave the first impulse to iheii 
culture, which was aided by the commencement of the navigation. The famous 
Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the naviga- 
tion of this early period, occurring about eighty years before the 'J'rojan war. 
About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted, 
in Crete, under the direction of Minos; not with the perfection, however, 
which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him 
Theseus. The peo[)le of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, 
and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other 
regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions. 

§ 6. Hereby w^as occasioned a more free intercourse between the different 
people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest, 
particularly in reference to murders and depredations. A proof of this was 
given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injuries of Menelaus 
(committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on 
together the war against Troy. This war became a means of the further 
advancement of Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40), although it was also the 
occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus 
led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi- 
nally tliey became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and 
social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and 
maintaining social and civil order. 

§ 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a military charac- 
ter ; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but 
now a more monarchical form was assimied. Soon however the kings abused 
their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. 
Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very 
name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a stale of 
things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. 
Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, 
the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure 
allayed. Amphictyon,, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in 
a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), and this compact afterwards became much 
more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquillity 
and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, 
and Africa. 

§ 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedaemon enjoyed first the advantages 
of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in 
some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. 
about 820, the author of this code, had previously made himself acquainted with 
the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without intro- 
ducinCT any violent chancres, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold 
regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new 
and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very 
severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and 
warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design 
was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in tb.ese respects a high pre-eminence 
over the other siates. 

See 7. K. F. Maiiso Sj)ar'a, ".'w V'ersuch zur Eiklarung d. Geschich e unrt Verfassung dieses Staals. Leipz. lSOO-1905. 3 Th. S. 
— Cf. references siveii P. V. ^ 7. 7(d). 

§ 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in 
culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and subspquently acquir- 
ing glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became 
more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mu- 
tual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was 
imrried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens 
and Sparta, and in which almost all tlie other states of Greece took part on one 
side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure 
mg after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and 



p. Til. INTRODUCTION. 143 

became the residence of refined manners, useful knovvleoge, and cultivated taste 
in the arts. 

IVm. Yuii7ig''s Political History of Athens. — Tnns. into German. Leips. 1777. 8. — Athenian Letters, or the epibtolary corres- 
pnndence of an agent of the kin? of Persia, residing at Alliens during the Peloponnesian w.tr. Lond. I7!:!9. 2 vols. 8 — Tians into 
Germ, by F Jacobs, heipz \BCO. — Bulwer, Rise and Fall of Athens.— Cf P. V. § 7. 7 (d;. 

§ 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece we are to notice more 
particularly in the Archaeolog-y of Literature (P. IV. § 33ss. Glss.), and here 
it is only necessary to allude to the causey, which conspired to render Greece 
so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly pro- 
pitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as 
well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention; 
its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty ; its commercial inter- 
course, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable 
circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day 
one uf the most remarkable in histor}', and whose works in literature and art 
are still valued as our best models. 

§ 11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of 
the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military, 
and domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge, 
especially as an aid in the investigation of history, language, criticism, mytho- 
logy, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at 
all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, 
that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, re- 
ligion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point 
of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is denominated their 
Aniiquilies is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to com- 
prehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various monu- 
ments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view. 

On the utiUty of the study of classical antiquities, we iniroduce the follo\\ing re- 
marks, abridged, from Rollin (as cited P. II. § 5 2t.)— "To a certain extent, this study 
IS indispensable tor all who make pretensions to education. Without it, tliere are 
a multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand; 
without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without 
being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily 
solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. 
1 here is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly con^ 
ducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on 
every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be compre- 
hended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated 
taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the Romans. Juvenal 
also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that 
a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridi- 
culous questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to mis- 
apply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of thirgs ol)Scure and 
difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says (Ofi'. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and some 
times even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this 
danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish 
and pitial)le vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior 
writers have said ; that such an occupa'ion consumes unprofitably the time and strength 
which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications 
of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorant of certain thii^gs is by no means 
the least. 

After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities 
either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch 
of learnii^g ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pur.«tie important 
studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of the work 
should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the read- 
ing of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, litlr by little, which wilJ 
afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only 
necessary to make the cbmmencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down 
observations in order and with accuracy. 

Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven or eighl 
heads: religion; political government ; war; navigation; monuments and pul)iic edi- 
ficfs; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; the customs of common lifie, such 
as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under each of these divisions are included many 



U4 



GRECIAN ANTICiUITIES. 



Rubdivisions. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gcds, priests, 
temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacri- 
lices, leasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads." 

See AT. li. Milhaiiser, Ueber Pliilolne;ie, Al'erthuinswisseiiscliaft, und Allerthiimsstutiiuni. Fe>r Studirende. I.ps. IS37. 8. pp 88. 
• -Suj-g-cis, Essay oil the Sluly of Antiquities. Oxf. 17S2. S. — /"/ar/viej-, as cited § 196. 3 m.— See also P. IV. § 29 ; and h oiks Ihera 
<.Ued. 

§ 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical w^riters, and 
especial]}' the historians, more particularly such of theni as give details of the 
whole constitution of Grecian society, the manners, cnstoms, and modes of 
thinking- and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be 
considered as sources of information on .this subject, especially the epic poets, 
whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth 
for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and 
views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in 
the remaining monuments of art; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems, 
and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more 
distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained 
from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations 
of beauty and taste. 

^ 13 M. Various modern writers have collected from these sources scattered items of 
information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gatn 
a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it to the study of Greek literature. .Other writers 
have investigated particular topics m a more full and extended manner. 



I. For an account of works of liolh kinds, see 

J. A. Fnhricii Bibliographia .intiquaria. (Stud, et op. P. Schaffs- 
Hansen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. cap. ii. 

A'ifsc/i'.s Beschreibung des, &c. which is cited below (Th. i 
p. 35.) 

Krebs, Handbuch derphilolol. Blcherkunde (Bd. ii p. 211). 

Cf. Sulzer^s All?. Theorie, Allen. 

MeuzeVs Bihiiotheca Hislorica, vol. 3d, as ci'ed P. V. § 240 
enumerates the writers on Anliqvities. 

2. The most important collection of particular treatises on 
Greek Antiquities is Jac. Gronovit Thesaui-us- Antlquitalum 
Grsecarum. I-u;. Bat. I697-I702. 13 v Is. fol. Ven. 1732. An 
account of the contrnts is given in the work of Fabricius, just 
cited. — A mass of valuable m.itter re'ating to various branche.s of 
Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monu- 
nient."!, is found in Monlfaucmi^s Antiq. Kxpliq. cited P. TI. 
§ 12. 2(d). An abridgment of this in German, by J. F. Roth, 
was published Nilrnb. ISO", fol. with 130 plates.— We may men- 
lion here also Caylus, Recueil des Antiquitiis Par 1767. 7 vols. 4. 
containing F.gyptian and other antiquities, with engravings. — 
Also, F. J). David, Antiquiles Etrusques, Grecques, et Romains. 
Par. 1787. 5 vols. 4. 

3. Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject 
are the following : 

Everh. Feithii Antiquitatum Hnmericarum Libri iv. (ed. El 
Stottr) Argent. 1743. 8. 

Fr. Rous, Attick Antiquities. 9th ed. Lond. 1685. 4. 

Jo. Phil. Pfifffer, Libri iv. Antiq. Grscarum. I.pz. 1708. 4. 

Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Grascarum, praecipue Alticarum, Descrip" 
tio brevis (with obs. of F.eisner and Zeunius). l,pz. 1787. 8. 
(Ens trans, by Stock^ale) Lond. 1772 8. 

Sjs. Havercainp, Aiili(i. Grascarum, praecipue At'icarum, De- 
wriptio brevis. Lus. Bat. 1740. 8. 

P.F.A.Nitsch.B schreibungdes hauslichen,gottesdienst!ichen, 
sittlicheii, poli'ischen, kriegerischen und wissenscl aftlichen Zu- 
slandesd.Griechen,&c. (fortgesel?' von Hiipfner) Erf. 1791-1800. 
3 vols. 8. with a 4;li vol. by Kiipke, E f 1806 Cf Class. 
Journ. V. 10. 

P. F. A. Kitsch (same), Entwurf der Griech. AlterlhUmer. 
Altenb. 1791. 8. 

L Schanff, Aniiquitaten und Archiolngie ^er Griechen und 
RJm<T. (also in his Encycl. der Ciass. Atterthumsk). Magdeb. 
IS20. S. * 

/. Hobinson, Archaeologra Graeca, or the Antiquities of 
'•rppce, &c. Lond. 1827. C 



J. Potter, Archseologia Graeca, or the Antiquities of Greece 
Oxf. i699. 2 vols. 8— Same work, ed. G. Dun bar. Edinb. 1820. 
— with additions and corrections by Ant/ion. N. York, 1825. 8. 
—with no'es, maps, kc. by /. Boyd. Glasg 1837. 12. valuable.- 
Same work in German, with additions by /. / Ramlach. Halle. 
1777-78. 3 vols. 8. 

A compendium of Grecian Antiquities by C. D. Clevclana 
Host. 1831. 12. 

Abriss der Griech. und Rom. Alterth'slmer, von Chr. Fried 
Haacke. Stendal, 1821. 12. (very brief). 

4. The following are not designed for manuals, but contaii' 
highly in'eresting pictures of Grecian antiquity. 

/. Jac. Barlhelerny, Voyige de jeune Anacharsis en Grece. ed 
Stereot. Par. 1*20. 7 vols. 12 —Engl Iransl. by W. Beaumont 
Lond. 1.806. Cf. P. V. § I53.-In Germ: with notes by /. E 
Biesler. Berl. 1792. 7 vols. 8. 

J. D. HartmarnVs Versuch einer Kulturgeschichte der 
vornehmstrn V'olkerschaflen Griechenlands. Lemgo, 1796 and 
1800. 2Bde. 8. 

/. D. Lockhart, Inquiry into the Civil, Moral, and Religioui 
Institutions of Athens &c. with the Tjpography, and Chorogra 
phy of Atiica and Athens. Translated from the German of ^. 0. 
MViller. Lond. 1842. 8. 

The Athenian Letters, cited § 9. 

5. The following works also may be consulted with advan- 
tage on different points : 

Waclismulh, Heilenische Alierlhumskunde. Halle, 1826. 
Trans, into Engl. (Historical Antiquities of Greece) Oxf 1837. 
4 vols. S. 

"■■IVs Essays on the Institutions of the Greeks. 

Gillii:x' Discourse on the Manners of the Greeks. 

yi'. Becker, Charicles ; Bilder altgriechischer Siiten. Lpz. 1S40. 
2 \''jls. 8. with plates. A work illustratiug the private life of th« 
ancient Greeks. 

C. Hermann, Antiquitatum Laconicarum libelli iv. Maib. 
1841 4. 

J. Mallciit. Rpcherches ,snr les Mrcnrs, les Usages, rellgienx, 
civile, et mililaires, des Anciens Peuples. Par 1809. 3 vols. 4. 

H. Ha% The Public and Private Life of the ancient Greeki 
Transl. from German. Lond. 1836. 8. 

Heero.^s Politics of Anc. Greece. Transl. by G. Bancroft 
Bost. 1824. 

C. 0. Mailer's History and Antiquities of the Doric Race Tr 
i-v H. Tufnel and G. C. Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

fVm. Bruce, State of Society 'n the age of Homer. 



p. III. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 



145 



„!. Bockh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener. (Translated into 
English) Public Economy of Athens. Lond. 1828 2 vols. 8. 

Lardna'i Cabinet Encyclop. No. xlvii. and Ixx. (On Arts, 
Manufactures, &c. of Greeks and Ronrians.) 

ifow^ier, L' Agriculture Ancienne des Grecs. Par. 1830. 8. 

D. G. IVait, Jewish, Oriental, and Classical Antiquities; con- 
taining illustrati.ms of the Scriptures and Classical Records, from 
Oriental sources. Camb. 1823. 8. (cf. Home, Int. to Stud. S. 
Script^ ii. p. 727). 

liollMs Anc. Hist. bk. x. Best edition, New Vork IS35. 
2 vols, large S. 

C. F. IVebtir, Repertorium der classischen Alterthumswissen- 
schaff. Lpz. 1832. 8. 



■ Encyclopedic Methodique, as cited P. II. 5 12. 2 (c). 

P. Dauet, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Lond. 
1700. 4. 

A. Pauly, Real-Encyclopidie der classischen Alterthumswis- 
senschafien Stutlg. 1S38. commenced. ... 

Fosbruke. Encyclnpaedia of Antiquities, Classical and Mediae- 
val. Lond. 1838. 3 vols. 4. with plates.— Also Lond. 1840. 
I vol. large 8. 

IV. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Lond. 
1842. large 8. very valuable. 

6. Additional references on particular topics will be given, 
as the topics occur in the following sections. 



§ 14. The subject of antiquities cannot be treated in so strict accordance with 
chronological order as the events of history,- because the sources of information 
are not sufficiently minute. But still in describing the antiquities of a people, 
one should not lose sight of the influence which political revolutions, the pro- 
gress and decline of refinement, and other circumstances, have exerted at suc- 
cessive times upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and 
sociell state. Most writers have not been sufficiently mindful of this, and have 
also confined themselves chiefly to the' most flourishincr of the Grecian states, 
viz. .Vthens, and so have described Jtiic^ rather than Grecian antiquities. In 
order to avoid this double fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the ear- 
lier and less cultivated times will be distinguished from those of a later and 
more enlightened period ; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was 
then the most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitution 
-. ad peculiarities of the other principal states. 



I. — Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages'. 

§ 15. It has been already suggested (§ 5, §10), that Greece advanced with 
very rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness in manners and morals to the 
highest degree of refinement. The history of this progress may be divided 
into three distinct periods. The ^rs^ extends from the original state of barba- 
rism to the time of the Trojan war ; this was the period of the peopling of 
Greece : the second extends from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the 
period of the rise and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs : the 
third extends from the age of Solon, to the time when tne Greeks lost their 
liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (cf. P. V. § 9), the period of their 
greatest perfection and glory. 

Under the present head it is proposed to notice what periains more particu- 
larly to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods; and the subject 
will be considered in four general branches, viz. religious, civile military^ and 
domestic affairs. 



I. RELIGIOUS- AFFAIRS. 



§ 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the Greeks, their 
religion had no fixed or steady form : yet a great part of the popular belief 
originated in these times, which on this account have been called the mythical 
ages or fabulous period. The formation of this early popular faith was aided 
by the general ignorance, the predominance of pcnsual ideas, and the natural 
tendencies of the mind in an uncultivated state of society (P. II. § .5w). With 
the progress of social and moral culture, the traditions and fables grew into a 
sort of system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented 
and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mytholocry. 

Accordino- to common accounts, Greece received new and belter religiou^i 
notions from Thrace, by Orpheus. B. C. about 1250 (cf. P. V. § 12. § 48^ 

13 



146 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian oritrjn. The worship of animals the 
Greeks never adopted ; but the}' enibr.iced in common with most of the ancient 
nations, the worship of the stars, that early form of idolatry. 'I'hey also prac- 
ticed the custom of deifying and worshiping men (P. II. § 118), who were 
styled heroes, having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries, 
establishing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits. 

On the religious affairs of Greece, we may refer to J. G. Lakcniachei; Antiquilates Grsecorum sacrro. Helmst. 1744. 8. — Chr' 
irlltihigii. Compendium Aniiq. Graec. e profanis sacrarum. Fraiicof. 1758. S. — MUfoid. H.st Giasc. ch. ii. sect. 1 — F:jucher, sur 
m relJifioD des Grecs, in tlie Mem. ^C:id. [nscr. vols, xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxviii. and xxxix.~Ant. Van Dale, Diss, de Origine 
ac Progressu Idohtriae et Superstitionum. Ainst. Ib96. 4. 

's 17 u. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks was the business of 
their wise men, lawgivers, and poets, who were mostly at ihe same time priests. The 
matter of these was confined chiefly to the dogmas and narratives of 1 heogony and 
Cosmogony, which were of a mixed character, fabulous and allegorical, but based upon 
some real appearances in nature and man. The various operations of the powers of 
nature and the movements of human passions, were the principal foundation of the 
tales and doctrines of the mythology. The origin of things, their vicissitudes and trans 
formations, their nature, tendency and effects, were the subjects ; and these were, by 
a lively fancy, changed into supposed or unaginary perso?is, to whom words, actions, 
and appropriate attributes were ascribed. The regular combination or assemblage of 
these in order was called the Theogony, or account of the origin and descent of the 
gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, which one of the most ancient of 
the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular form in his poem styled the The- 
ogony, and all the principal elements of which Homer interwove in his tv/.o epic poems, 
the llliad and Odyssey. . (Cf P. V. ^ 50, ^ 51.) 

§ 18 u. In the first ages the wise men, and especially the poets, made great exertions 
to imbue the minds of the people with reverence for the gods and respect for their wor- 
ship. On public solemnities, and in great assemblies of the people, they were ac- 
customed to adapt their songs to this object. Even when the subject of these songs 
was not the history of the gods, nor any point of direct religious instruction, they were 
opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apollo, or some inspiring deity. In this way they fixed 
and strengthened a prevailing faith in the power and providence of the gods, and 
formed the first ideas of right, virtue, and morality, and of future rewards and punish- 
ments. The songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and s^ubject of 
the instruction of the young. Hence arose on the one hand the great influence of their 
poetry on the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the other hand the great admiration 
in which the early poets were generally held. 

§ 19 u. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their names, rank, history, 
attributes, and mode of worship, we refer to the portion of this work which treats of 
Mythology (P. II). Here we only remark, that the number of the Grecian gods con- 
stantly increased with the progress of time, yet the highest and most distinguished of 
them were introduced and honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly in the class of 
heroes or demigods that this augmentation took place, after the lapse of the heroic 
ages, and by means of oral traditions. 'I'he more extensive the services of these heroes 
were while living, tbe more general was the reverence for them after death, while 
those, whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particular city or tribe, 
were deified chiefly by the same, and received a less general homage and worship. 

§ 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the gods in these 
early ages, were in part, fields and grounds, whose produce was devoted to 
uses connected with religious worship ; partly groves and particular trees, the 
former being commonly planted in a circular form; and partly, at length, tem- 
ples, which were viewed as the seats and habitations of their respective gods. 
The temples were usually in the cities near the market or place of public busi- 
ness, altbouffh they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the conse- 
crated groves. The ground, on which they stood, was usually elevated either 
by nature or art, and their entrance or front was commonly towards the oast. 
Some of th"m were dedicated to a sincrle deity, others to several. It was not 
uncommon to place thp name of the god, to whom the temple was sacred, in a 
brief inscription over the entrance. 

.§21. Originally the int^^ior of the temple was entirely vacant, after the 
Egyptian tnanner, even wit,hout the image or statue of its god. And in the 
earliest times the image- of a god (cf P. IV. § 15(5. 2) w^as nothing hut a mere 
stone, which served to represent the deity, and to which offerinors were brought. 
This was the primary origin of altars. By degrees, these stones came to he 
'V^rnied into a human shape, after which it was more common to place statues 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 147 

(a/yd\ixata) of the g^ods in their temples. The posture was somftimes stand- 
ing, sometimes sitting-. The material, at first employed, was of no great value, 
leing- stone, wood, or clay. There were, however, in the heroic ages, images 
of the gods of a more costly suhstance, such as ivory, brass, silver cr gold, 
although Homer never exactly describes the material. 

§ '22. 'J'he care of the temples and holy things was intrusted to ihe priests 
and priestesses. The number of these varied in different cases, and depended 
generally upon the rank of the deity, on whose temple and worship they 
attended. The marriage state was not forbidden them, although it became 
afterwards customary to take priestesses mostly from persons unmarried, who 
either were obliged to perpetual celibacy, or remained priestesses only until 
marriage. In some instances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it 
was adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was usu- 
ally near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the limits of the 
latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered to the gods, and 
were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office was highly honored in 
the early ages of Greece, and was held, in part at least, by the noblest and 
most distinguished personages, sometimes even by kings. 

§ 23. Some of the principal riles and solemnilies pertaining to the religious 
worship must here be mentioned. Among these were /ustrafions (xa^apfioJ, 
ayviafioi), which consisted in the ablution of the body, and a certain purification 
of the clothes, and of sacred utensils. For this purpose salt water was used, 
which was taken from the sea, or prepared by a solution of salt in common 
water. Sulphur and fire were also used on these occasions. These purifica- 
tions were considered as especially necessary for those who were defiled by 
murder and blood, and even for the places where such crimes had happened. 
They were often ordered for the propitiation of offended deities. 

§ 24. But prayers and sacrijices were the most essential parts of Grecian 
worship. The former were put up, especially, when son)e important enterprise 
or undertaking was commenced ; the object of the prayer being to secure a 
happy issue, in case of which very rich gifts were promised to the gods by the 
supplicant. Both prayers and vows were termed ivx(^<-- In makinij them, the 
eyes and bauds were raised towards the heavens, or in the temples directed 
tov/ards the images. The posture was sometimes standing, sometimes kneel- 
ing (yorva^f o^t, yoj'vrtff ftv) ; the latter was used especially in case of earnest 
desire or peculiar distress, and often by the whole assembly in common. 

1. Supplicants usually had garlands on their heads and necks, and green boughs of 
olive or laurel (^aXXoi or /cA-i^^t [kty]pioi) in their hands. In the boughs wool was placed 
without tying, and they Vktn; hence called sometimes crrf/^/ittra. With these boughs the 
supplicants louched the knees, sometimes the cheek, of the statue of the god addressed 
in their prayers. 

2 7t. With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink o^cnngs, mzov^at, 
called also Xo Pdi, x"". These consisied generally of wine, part of which was poured 
out in honor of the gods, and part of it drunk by the worshiper. The wine must be 
pure (.AYftroi/), and offered in a full cup. Sometimes there were libations ot water 
[vSpnoTTO '^a) , of honey (//rXicnrai/Ja), of milk {yaXaKromro^^a), and.of oil {iXaioairo^^a). 

In Plate XX. we have the represpntatinn of a priestess in the act of pouring out the liliaiion ; 
in ttils instance the liquid is poiifnd npnn the flame kindled on the altar; also in Plate XXVII. 
fig. C whicli is taken from Muses, Anli(]iie VasesT 

§ 2.5. The sacrijices, ^niai. originally consisted merely of incense, ^vo^', oi 
some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron wood, or the like,. In very 
early tinaes, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, unprepared state, were otfered ; 
and subsequently, cakes, ov'kai, baked of coarse barley, or meal mixed with 
salt. It was not until a somewhat later period, that the slaughter of living 
victims was introduced, 'i'hese victims were selected with great care. At 
first, bullocks, sheep, goats, and swine, were chiefly taken for the ptir|)ose.. 
Afterwards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropriate to 
particular (rods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, sometimes several 
at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, and often also cif difler- 
ent kinds. The hecatomb (txatoui^r^) properly consisted of a hundred 'lullock"* 



i48 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

or oxen ; yet neither the number nor kind of animals was veij } recisely re« 
Swarded. 

The origin of sacrifices is an interesting and important theme. Some flippant and superficial 
writers ascribe lliem wholly to mere superstition and priestcraft. Others attempt in a more 
serious manner to explain their existence by human origin. Several iheories have been pro- 
piised ; one is, that they were at first gifts, a natural expedient for procuring the favor of the 
gods; another, that they were /er/eraZ ri/e,*, drawn from men's eating and drinking together in 
token of friendship, and hence the sacrificial banquet (cf. ^27); a third, advanced by W;irburton 
(in his Divine Legation of Moses), is that they were symbohcal actions, expressive of gratitude 
in some offerings, and in others, of the acknowledgment of sin and contrition through the dealh 
f)f an animal representing the death deserved by the worshiper. But a fourth account, which 
refers ihem to a dioine institution, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents the Hebrew sacri- 
fices as typical of the death of Christ as tiie great atoning sacrifice for sinners. (Cf. Ep. to heb. 
ix. and x.) On supposition that God, when he promised a Redeemer to Adam, instituted some 
memorial and type, iii an animal sacrifice, it is easy to see how by tradition the practice of offering 
s icrifices should be universal. — The subject is well discussed by IV. jyiagee. Dissertations on the 
Scriptural Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice. N. York, 1813. 8. — Cf A. .^. Sykes, Essay on the 
S icrifices. Lond. 1748. 8. 

§ 26. The al/ars{}5ix)ixoi), on which the sacrifices were presented, were erected 
ftot only in the temples, but often in open places, as on the banks of rivers, 
en mountains, in groves, and the like. 

The ahar seems to have preceded the temple ; and, in the opinion of some, gave rise 
to the temple, as suggested in the following passage. 

"Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention occurs of a temple in Greece, except in the 
second book, evidently incidental, and the interpolation of some vainly patriotic Athenian rhap- 
sodisi. The passage indeed might be condemned on the grounds of [)tiilolo2ical discussion, bin 
it contradicts both the history of art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of 
Minerva appears to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was inclosed, and probably, in 
Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During the age of Homer, then, the primeval 
altar, common to both Europe and Asia, was the only sacred edifice known. This differed little 
from a common hearth ; the sacrifice being in fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to 
heaven, and the food of man, was prepared by roasting; the first improvement on their simple 
construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an obvious means of cleanliness 
and comfort. Yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction rmt common, since, in par- 
ticular instances, the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in order 
,o mark in a more conspicuous manner, and with more dignity, the sacred spnt, while the rites 
should be equally exposed to ihe spectators, an open colonnade was added, inclosing the altar 
and pavertient. Thus the roofless temple might be said to be finished ; but whether this prime- 
val structure existed in his native country during the age of Homer does not appear. We 
remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in Greece and 
the Druidical temple of the-more northern regions. In fact, the astonishing remains at Stone- 
henge present the best knowti, and perhaps one of the most stupendous examples ever erected 
of the open temple. This species of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with 
the spread of the humari race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion 
of the g\obe."— Mem es. Hist, of Sculpttire, &c. p 225, as cited P. IV. $ 169. 

§ 27. Among the ceremonies connected with offering a sacrifice, was the pre- 
vious washing of the hands (§ 67. 2) and the sprinkling, by the priests, of those 
who were present, with sacred water [^^^spvt-^). Then was placed upon the 
hack and head of the victim, in early times, imground barley, in later times, a 
number of small cakes {Ttoriava, ovXozvta), often meal mixed with honey, wine, 
or oil ; a little hair torn from the forehead of the victim was then thrown upon 
the fire; next followed the prayer and libation (§ 24. 2); then the priest, or the 
xjypul, smote the animal on the head with an ax or club, and cut its throat with 
a sacrificial knife (^n^ayi^). The blood was received in an appropriate vessel 
{rsrpaysLov). The victim was then flayed and cut in pieces. The next thing 
was to cover the haunches or thighs (ixTjpoi) with caul or fat (xviaar]), and to 
take small pieces from other parts of the animal and place upon them (ti^o^frftv). 
Upon the portions thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they were 
then ])laced on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim was usually 
roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this kind 
were made especially on the sacred festivals. 

§ 28. Besides the sacrifices properly so called, it was common to bring to 
the gods other gifts and offerings (6c3pa, dpa^riuata). Among these, were 
urowns or garlands {ati<pavos. ff-ri^o^), with which the temples, altars, and sta- 
tues were often a lorned, ar^d which were formed of the leaf sacred to the par- 
ticular god to whom they were offered : e. g. oi ivy, for Bacchus ; of oak, for 
Jupiter. Curtains and vestments (rtfptrtffarT^ara, Ttf^ovYiuato.) wrought with 
•i<jl: embroidery wf re brought arid placed upon the statues or hung in the torn 



p. in. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 14S 

pies. Vessels of gold, silver, and brass were also offered, and tripods (TpJrtoSf j) 
especially to Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, axpo^Lvta, 
with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated to the aods were 
marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and circumstances of their dedica- 
tion. From the custom here described, arose the great riches of some of the 
Grecian temples. 

The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years pos- 
sessed of immense wealth. 

See MitjoriVs Hist. Greece, ch. xxxvii. sect. I ; oh. xxxviii. sect. I ; ch. xxxix. sect. ^.—Sancrofl^t Hceren, p. 201, as cited P. V. 
§ 7. S.—De Valois, Les richesses du temple de Delphes, ici the Mem. Acad. Inscr. iii. 78 

§ 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a worship of 
the heroes as demigods (§ 16), which however was neither so general nor 
attended with so much ceremony. These had no festivals, properly speaking, 
but an annual funeral solemnity (evdyiaixa), and were viewed as tutelary guar- 
dians of their country, tribe, or family. On these solemnities, the drink offer- 
ings (z^oll) were in common practice; not only wine was used for the purpose, 
but often milk, and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various 
offerings presented, and from these a trophy (-rpoTtatov) or a funeral pile, was 
constructed. In some cases, the first fruits of the season were offered. The 
usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of the hero, in whose memory 
they were held, near which it was customary to erect an altar; often also to 
make a pit or hole (36^po$, %dxxo';), which had reference to their dwelling in 
the under world. (Cf. P. II. § 3-2.) 

§ 30. Funeral snlemniiies were generally a part of the religious Ui>nges of the 
• more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately on the death of an indi- 
vidual, in the formal closing of his eyes {ovyx'k^inv tov'^ 6^^a%i.iovi), a ceremony 
usually performed by the nearest kinsman. The corpse was then washed and 
anointed, clothed in a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier (^.i-xTpor, 
pipstpov).' Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the 
funeral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed ^ot 
the occasion, and accompaniea by mournful notes of the liute. 'i'he mourners 
also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, and casting it upon the 
corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not always the same length of 
time, sometimes three, sometimes seven days, and often a greater number. 

§ 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the Greeks, as 
the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. In the earliest times 
interring was practiced by the Greeks, although Homer speaks only of 
burning. 

1 u. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was borne on 
a bed or bier lo the appointed place, where a i'uneral pile {-nvpa) was erecied. Near 
this, funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed various objects, which 
had been particularly valued by the deceased, even animals, and sometimes human 
beings previously put to death. During the burning, the attendants uttered their wait- 
ings and funeral chants. The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some 
hquid, and the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, and 
deposited in an urn. which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was 
marked by stones and a mound (xw/iu), on which was commonly raised a pillar (orijAfj), 
or other monument, with an inscription. The ceremonies were ended wiih a funeral 
repast {veKpo^smvov , Tzspi6tnrvov). Sometimes -games were celebrated in honor of the 
deceased. 

2. It is stated, that among the Throciaits vvives were btn-ned on the funeral piles of 
their husbands; a custom which is still prevalent in India, ahhough the, influence ol 
Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the countiy s-iil ject to England. 

§ 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we shoulo notice 
their regard to oracles and to divinations. The most ancient of the oracles way 
that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still more celebrated, and also of earlj 
origin. The practice of divination and the interpreting of signs was a bu.siness 
of the priests in particular. It was done partly by observing accidental 
occurrences, as the flight of birds, or the breaking!' of thunder, in both of which 
the right side indicated good fortune, the observer havintr his face directed to the 
north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing was rt 



^50 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

gard(;d as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the prophetic inter- 
pretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in maoric, and in bodily 
metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford various means of aid and pro- 
tection. 

The religious/es/2?;a/s were numerous and attended with various ceremonies. 
— But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we shall speak more 
particularly again. (Cf. §§ 70-77.) 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 33. It has been already remarked (§ 5), that the first inhabitants of Greece 
lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any social compact. The 
family relations, the authority of the parent over the child, of the husband over 
the wife, exhibited the only traces of government. Phoroneus, a son of In-^chus, 
is mentioned as the first author of association for civil purposes. Gradually 
the Greek tribes began to select leaders, who were called kings {}3a6i%.ni), 
however limited might be the extent of their dominion or a\Jthority. The choice 
most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or country some 
distinguished and meritorious service; and then the dignity became hereditary, 
a thing rather rare, however, in the earlier ages. Sometimes the choice was 
determined by consulting an oracle, and in such case the autiiority Wiis viewed 
as the more rightful, and as sanctioned by the gods. 

On the subject of the civil affairs of ihe early Greeks, ue may refer to F. IV. Tittniann^s D.irstellung iter griechisch. Stiatsveifaf 
sunken. Leipz 1822. %—Milford, ch. ii. sect. 2; ch. iv. sect. 4.— See § 92. 

§ 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being despotic, or 
unlimited; the leaders and princes being bound by certain laws and usages. 
'I'he principal duties of these chiefs were to couimand in war, to settle disputes 
between the people, and to take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love 
of justice, and zeal for religion, were therefore reckoned among tlH'ir most im- 
portant excellences. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was 
assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended theniselves Certain 
taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in time of war. 
The signs of their officg were the scepter and diadem. The former (crx^rtrpoi') 
was usually of wood, and in length not unlike the lance; the latter {^taby^/xa) 
was a sort of bandeau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general 
costume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of 
a purple color. 

In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was something attached 
to the head ; a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic crown was common. 
David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious stones, of the weight (meaning 
probably of the value) of a talent (1 Scan. xii. 30). Athenaeus mentions a crown, made 
of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy. 

In our Plate XVI. fig. C, we have a curious golden crown, which is said to have been found 
iti some part of Irelnnd, in 1692, about, ten feet under groiind Near it in the Plate, fi<r. a, is :ni an- 
cient Abyssinian crowti ; on the other side, fi;;. b, is the covering .-:een on tlie head of a coiMjiiere.. 
prince or general upon Egyptian niontnnents. — In Plate XXI V" fiir. 6, we have Umjillet and burn 
worn by goveriiurs of provinces in Abyssinia. "A large broail fillet," says Bruce, "was bound 
upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the n)iddle of this was a conical piece of silver 
about four inches long. It is called kirn or horti, and is worn especially in parades after victo- 
ries."— firwcg. Travels, &c. as cited P. IV. $ 118. 1. 

§ 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple and unimpos- 
^ng. In war, they usually had by their side a friend, who served as a kind of 
armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, they employed heralds {xrpvxs?) in the 
publication and execution of their orders. The heralds also imposed silence, 
when the chiefs wished to come forward and speak in an assembly. The same 
officers assisted in religious ceremonies, and were present in the forming of 
treaties. — The kings also selected councillors, of the most distinguished, ex- 
perienced, and brave of the people; and in cases of doubt or difficulty, held 
with them consultations and formal assemblies, in whi(;h the speaker was 
accustoined to stand and the rest to sit. Both public and private affairs were 
'iscussFd in these asspmhlies. 

^ 36. The courts of justice were in public places; and the whole assembly 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 151 

usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat upon seats or benchep 
of stone; the men selected for the office were such as were much respected on 
account of age and experi<^nce, Tiiey bore in their hand a scepter or staff. 
The cause was stated orally by the contendincr parties themselves, and by theni 
the witnesses were brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in tliese 
judicial assemblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, equity 
and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions; but afterwards, the 
courts had for their guide particular laws -^ind statutes, which were first intro- 
duced by Plioroneus, and more extensively by (^ecrops. 

§ 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, so were 
the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. Murder was commonly 
punished by banishment, either voluntarily sought by the murderer, or expressly 
decreed by public sentence; its duration, however, was but a year, and even 
this could sometimes be commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum be- 
longed only to the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was 
punished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very fre- 
quent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not considered as cri- 
minal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, especially if shrewdness 
and cunning were united with the theft. Nothing therefore was aimed at but 
to recover what had been taken, or to inflict vengeance by a corresponding in- 
jury. Afterwards, however, particular punishments were imposed for these 
offences. 

§ 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Crete were connected with the Greeks 
by their having a common language, it is important to mention the Cretan laws, 
which were introduced by Minos. They are said to have been the most ancient 
written code, and were afterwards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military 
valor and union among the people seems to have been their great aim; every 
ordinance of Minos was directed to promote strength of body, and to cultivate 
social attachment between the members of the state. In order to impart greater 
dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them forward as having been re- 
vealed to him by Jupiter. But the moral culture was not greatly advanced by 
institutions having their primary and chief reference to a state of war. 

§ 39. In the progress of time, the form of government among the Greeks 
underwent many changes, and at length became wholly democratic. The most 
celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. Of these in particular a few 
important circumstances respecting their government in the more early ages are 
here to be mentioned. 

Athens was originally governed by kings. The power of thej^e kings was 
more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death of Codrus (1068 B.C.), 
it became a free state. The chief authoiity was given to officers styled 
Jrc/ums, who ruled for life. Thirteen archons of this description succeeded 
each other, all descended from the family of Codrus. After the time of these 
(752 B. C), the office of Archon ceased to be for life, and was lituited to ten 
years, and was held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven 
Archons of this kind, the office was made annual (681 B. C), and nine Archons 
were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the same rank. — The civii 
government experienced changes under Draco, and others still greater under 
the distinguished legislator Solon, and in after times. 

§ 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Euristhenes and Pro- 
cles, the two sons of Aristodemus (one of the Heraclidai' that invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus), reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under their descendants the 
Idngly office lost much of its authority. Lycurgus, the famous Spartan law- 
giver, changed greatly the form of government; it did not become democraiical, 
neither was it, properly speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the 
head, and a senate was established consisting of twenty-eight m* n, who were 
above sixty years of age. There was also the body of five Ephoii, appointed 
annually. The people themselves likewise had some share ii» the administra- 
tion of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions and disturt>ance», 
this 3tate enjoyed a long period of comparative rest and liber>y. 'J'liis it owf d 



. 152 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES 

very much to the wise regulations of Lyfurcrus, the salutary influence of which 
was aided hy the limited territory and moderate population of Laced aem on. 

§ 41. One of the most effectual means of advancinrr ihe Greeks was their 
commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the earliest times, com- 
merce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal exchanaes of native products. 
the use of gold not being introduced. Afterwards pieces of metal of diiTerent 
values were employed. (Cf. P. IV. § *J4.) Navigation became more common 
after the Trojan war, and jEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. 
Corinth and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The commerce 
of Athens finally became something considerable; that of Lacedaemon on the 
other hand always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is 
worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime intercourse 
had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian 
states. (Cf. P. IV. § 40.) 

A. Andason, Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the earliest accounts; with Appendix bj 
Cnombe. Uiibl. 179'J. 6 vols. 8 

'* Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the hands of 
the Phenicians. The cariying-trade ot the Mediterranean was early theirs, and Sidon 
was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without trathc carried on 
by sea among themselves ; but the profession of merchant had evidently not in Homer's 
time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early 
period in Greece. While it was thought not unbecoming a prince to be, a carpenter to 
supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean 
employment; a pirate was a more respected character. 

Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open vesseL=, 
nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no hint of 
any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece. 
are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale which oceans require, and 
which modern times have produced. Broken by innumerable headlands and islands, 
with coasts mostly mountainous, and in some parts of extraordinary height, the Gre- 
cian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united cir- 
cumstances, which have made the Greeks of all ages excellent boatmen, have contri- 
buted much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of the 
pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted ; the science of the 
navigator is of little avail; even the compass is comparatively useless in the ^gean. 
The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated 
by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English 
alone, accustomed in all their surrounding waters to a bolder navigation, commonly 
venture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in 
Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's de- 
pendence was his oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet 
so tempestuous, the greatest- danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which 
with their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms, 
and, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an of en beach, 
were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The Phenicians, for their com- 
merce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more open seas and longer voyages." 
Clifford. 

III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

§ 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of the greatest 
merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. The first inhabitants 
were distinguished for their warlike inclinations and habits of life, although 
their wars were conducted without much method or discipline. They were 
constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves and their property, but to 
attack and plunder others. Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and de- 
vastation in the extreme. It needed hut a trifling occasion to excite a general, 
long, and bloody war; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking exam])le. In 
such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces, 
jnited as in a common cause. 

On Grecian military affairs, see I T. H Nail, Einleilung in die griechischeii Kriegsallerlhimer. Slutlg 17?0. 8. a valiiahli- 
work on the general subject.— Als", G. G S JTdphe, itlier das Krie£;s\veisfn der Griechen im heroischen Zeilalter, &c. Berl ISO". S 
r(. Claxs. Juurn. ix. II. — C. Guiscarii, Menioires niililaires sur les Grecs et sur les Romains. r>a Haye, 1758. 4. It contains > 
•ranslation of Onosander \ct P. V. § 221), and plans of some ancient battles, &». Cf. 5 275.— Gajwer, as cited § I3C.— Alu'/or^ 
•>is». cli. i'.sect. 3, 4. 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE EARLIER AGES. Ifl.*) 

§ 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of fnot^soldiers and in later limes 
of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were 
distinguished as light armed (^.ait) and heavy armed (^Tt^vcrat). The Thessa- 
lians were early and especially celebrated for their cavvilry (t?T7tuj). Still more 
ancient was the use of war-chariots, which were employed by the heroes of 
Homer. Two horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots; each 
contained two warriors, one of whom guided the horses {rvcaxoi), while ihe 
other pointed out the direction (7tapat,3a?>;j.), discharged arrows, hurled missiles 
from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the action was close sprang 
from the chariot {8i^pos). Notwithstanding the inconvenience of these vehicles 
in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalry came to be generally 
substituted in their place. 

Ill the Sup. Plate 10 is seen a war chari.n with three horses and two persons; Btllona actiii" 
as charioteer, while Mars is hurling the javelin. " 

§ 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, defensive and 
oJfe7is?'ve. Among the /yr/?ver (dXf|);r>;pca, 7tpo,i3Xrftara) was the hel/nd (xvvir;, 
xpdvo^, TtepLXf^aTiata, xopvs) made of hide or leather and adorned with a crest 
of hair or tufts of feathers {^d^o^, Xo(j)o?), and attached to the neck by a strap 
(ox^V';) ; the breastplate (^copa|), commonly made of brass, sometimes of 
leather or linen; the girdle (^u>vrj), mostly of brass and encircling t'he lower 
part of the body ; the greaves (x:i'>7^r6f j), of brass or some more precious metal ; 
and the shield (dcvytt?), usually round, made of bullock's hide, and used for the 
protection of the whole body (cf. § 139). 

1 u. The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as nnich so as Hesiod repre- 
sents the shield of Hercules to have been/aud Homer that of Achilles. 

2. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (11. xviii.478) is cons dered as one of the finest 
passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield was formed by the celebrated artist 
Flaxmav, and several casts were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster, lie brfiiuht the winde 
work within a circle of three feet in diameter. It coiUains upwards of a hundred human figures 
exhibited in relief. 

Cf. /'e?^o?t'« Iliad, Notes — ?>ee Qiiatr. dc Quincy.Sir la description ilti bnuclier d'Acliille, &c. ii tlie Mem. I Ii, si. de France 
riasse li'Hiit. it LH. Anc vol. iv. p. 102, with a colored plate. — De Caylits, Boucliers d'Achile. d'He cule, el d'Eiice, S:c ir 
the Mem. Acad. Itiscr. xxvii. 21. — Class. Juiiiti vi. 6; viii. 409. 

§ 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (§dpr), commonly made of the 
ash-tree (jUfXt->;'), and of different lenfrths and forinv^ according as it was desio^ned 
for combat more or less close; the sword (|i-4)o$), the belt of wiiich hung from 
the shoulders; the bow (r6|oi^), usually of wood, with a string (vevpoi') of 
twisted horse-hair or of hide; the arrows (i^i'kr;, ot-nrd). of light-wood, pointed 
with iron, and winged (Ttt^pom; 105) with feathers ; \\\e javelin (axujv, dx6^■'rco^'), 
of various lengths and forms ; and the sling {a^^'bovrj), of an oval shape, with 
two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which arrows, stones, 
and leaden balls {fio7^vi58vvaL) were hurled against the foe. 

The spear used for close combat was called Sopv dpsKTov; that ibr a distance, iraXToi', 
.he poiiu, termed dixnn and dxrw^i?, was always ot metal. Ao ■po66<r] was the name given to 
ihe box or case, in which ihe spears were deposited when not in use. — '1 he lernt i';\Jsalso 
designates the spear; the epithet brazen {xoXkeov) is usually applied to it. Cf Horn. II. 

iii. 380. The arrows were kept in a (\\\\\ex {ihaperpa), which, with the bow, was usually 

carried on the back of the shoulders {lir oixoktw). '[ he quiver had a lid or cover i~Mna). 
Cf Ho?n. II. iv. 116-120. 

Various articles of ancient armor are seen in our Plates XVII. and XXII. The how and quivti 
are given in fig. T, and L, of Plate XVII. In this Plate also, fig. Y, V, we have forms of the 
(irec'mt) javeliv ; in O, O, spear-heads ; in the fias; a, a, the long .v/jcrtr ; in II, a form of the c/uij 
(cf. $ 1.39) which in various forms were used in early periods: i|i fig. A, A, are given firms of 
the r.lub or battle-viuUet used by ihe Egyptians, which sometimes had headen heads with handles 
four or five feet Ions; in fig. I, I, we have the Grecian buttle (i.r ; in fig. S, and in the several 
fi?s. marked C, and those marked D, are fortns of the Grecian and R man sirord ; in E, a Pacian 
word ; in those marked B. Persian swords. — In Plate XXII fig. o. /', c. '/, and e, are varieties 
»f helmets found in Egyptian remains: /. g^, h, and i, are Persian and Syrian lielmets : the 
kings are sometimes represented with crowns fif a simil ir ajipearance: v, and c, are given as 
Phrygian : I, in, are Grecian, and may represent also the Roman : p, and </, are Dacian : A-. is a 
form quite similar to the latter, said to be used also by the Syrians. In fig )•. and on ine Gre- 
cian warriors, fig. 1, and fig T, the ilinmj is seen, and the girdle: s, represents a figure found 
(cf. ."/(/?;t'.s Life of Rrant, v<d. ii. p. .55, Appendix) buried in a sitting posture, near the celebrated 
Oighton Hock, in Massachusetts, with a concave breastplate thirteen inches lonL', s.u|)posed to 
»e of cast brass, and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide, liavinc a reed-lik«? 
ipt^earance; a brazen arrow-head, l, was found with it. In fig. «, and on ;!ie warrior. I'lg 7. w» 



IS4 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

•ee I'oe grreaves ; the shielil, in fig. 1. 3, 7 ; the .spear in the iiaiid? of iho Qrpcian warriors, in Sg 
1, 2; and of the Persian, fig. 3: tlie bnw, &(:. in fii.'. C, uliicli represents an Egypiian archer. 

§ JH. Most of the weapons of the anci'^nt Greeks were ntade of brass oi 

topper, which seems to have been listed earlier than iron (ff. P. IV. § 10), ami 

was orten used after the introduction of iron. For defensive armor, iron was 

afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or breastplate, tfie greaves and 

the shield, tin or lead was sometiiTies used. 'I'o adorn the weapons with gold 

was considered as too extravagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to 

give their aimor the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of 

beauty, but to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield ihey had a sort of 

field-badge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god, 

or animal, especially the lion., 'I'he horses also were ornamented with much 

care. 

Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus du'ected the Lacedae- 
monians to clothe their soldiers ill scarlet. — 1 he Greek .soldiers usually carried their 
own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, onions, &c. For this 
purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker w,ih a long neck, called yvXwv. Rohin- 
son, p. 349. 

§ 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is [)roper to notice the use of 
ships nr vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed partly in piracy, 
partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual combat. In later times th'e 
naval battles of the Greeks were frequent and celebrated. Their first ships 
were long (^axpa't), and moved by oars. The number of rowers v\as various, 
often very considerable. Originally there was but a single rank on each side; 
afterwards, as the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added; 
vessels of the latter kind were called 8ixpora, those of the former ^oi/ozpo-ra, 
also/toi-j^pftg, xiTirjtfi. Ata later period they were builtwith three tiers or ranks, 
rpt/^pjt?, which continued to be the most common fornj, although there were 
vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and sometimes even more. 

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and signs, from 
which they were named. The ship commonly bore the imaofe or statue of some 
god, to whose protection it was especially intrusted. In the capture of a vessel, 
the first object of a victor was to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy 
in bis owm ship. 

§ 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forminor of regular camps. 
Their compass and extent were such as not only to include the whole army, 
but also the ships, which after the landing of the troops were drawn upon the 
dry land. It was customary to surround the camp with a wall or ramparts with 
towers and breast-works. Before the w ill was a fosse or ditch, guarded with 
pointed stakes. For the principal officers separate tents were erected, of 
wooden frames, covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed 
on guard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out from 
Doth parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other. 

•' 'I'ents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, on 
desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept with no shelter but 
their cloaks, as our light troops ofen carry none but a blanket ; when they reniainer) 
long on a spot they hutted Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir. and thatched with 
reeds; and it seems to have had several apartmen s. (//. xxiv. 488. ix 659)." 
Mitford. 

§ 49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in front, and 
the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and support them by the 
chariots froiTi behind. The whole army was drawn into close array, although 
arranged in distinct divisions. On the commencement of battle they implored 
ihe aid of the ofods, and rtiade vows of grateful returns. Then the general? 
exhorted the soldiers to valor, and proceeded to set an exam[)le. The onset 
was usually accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other 
\nd intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having nursing 
and medicine; but the slain'of the enemy were left iinburied, or their corpses 
even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed upon in some express 
stipulation. 

$ 50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which the caotoj 



p L A T t: X V T 1 




156 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, and partly in othei 
utensils and precious articles, which, together with their fawners, becanrie the 
property of the victor. By nrieans of a ransom, however, the spoils, as well as 
the prisoners, could be redeemed. After battle, the remainincr booty was often 
divided among the soldiers by lot; tiie general, however, always received his 
portion first and without lot, 'I'hose wlio had distinguished themselves by valor, 
also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often 
stimulated their troops before the action. 

" We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considerably 
upon that tumultuary warlare alone known to many barbarous nations, who yet have 
prided themselves in tlie practice of war for successive centuries. Several terms used 
by the poet, together witii his description of marches, indicate that orders of battle 
were in his lime regularly formed in ranks and files. Steadiness in the soldier, that 
foundation of all those powers which distinguish an army from a mob. and which to 
this day forms the highest praise of the l)esi troops, we find in great periection in the 
Iliad. ' 'i'he Grecian phalanges,' says the poet (iv. 427), ' marched in close order, the 
leaders directing each his own band. The rest were nmte : insomuch tiiat you would say, 
in so great a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they 
respectively watched i'or the word of command from their officers.' 

Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been very well 
armed, both lor offence and defence. Their defensive armor consisted of a helmet,, a 
breastplate, and greaves, all of brass; and a shield, commonly of bull's hide, but often 
strengthened with brass. The breast pla e ap[)ears to have met the bel-t, which was a 
considerable defence to the belly arid groin ; and with an appendant skirt guarded also 
the thighs. All together covered the forepart of the soldier trom the throat to the ancle ; 
and the shield was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian 
troops were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep 
Any body, formed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a specilic num- 
ber of either ranks or files, were generally termed a phalanx (II. iv. ^32. vi. 83). But 
the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed ; bows were their principal 
weapons, and they never engaged in close fight {'lyxs-jjiaxo:). 

Riding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appears to have been not un- 
known (II. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed belore it was generally applied 
in Greece to military purposes; the mountainous ruggedness of the coimtry prevented 
any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thessalians, whose territory was a 
large plain. [Cf Sallier, cited § 138 ] But in the Homeric armies no chief was with- 
out his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses; and these chariots 
of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action, 
composes the first line of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the in- 
fantry in which he has least confidence; and then forms a thii'd line, or reserve, of the 
most approved troops. 

The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage 
singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader with an appear- 
ance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the i-ealiry. Before the use of fire-arms that 
.practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at the greatest perfection. Cffi^ar 
himself gives (De Bell. Gall, v 43), with evident satisfaction, a very particular account 
of a remarkable advanced com.bat, in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions 
of his army engaged. The Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times 
of chivalry, had armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers; and this, 
v/ith the additional advantage of superior skill, acquii'ed by assiduous practice amid 
unbounded leisure, would make this skirmiishing much less dangerous than on first 
consideration it may appear." — Miiford, ch. ii. sect. 3. 

"Another practice common in Horner's time is by no means equally defensible, but 
on the contrary marks great barbarism ; that of stopping in the heat of action to sti'ip 
the slain. Often this paltry passion fior possessing the spoil of the enemy superseded 
all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects of battle. The 
poet himself (II. v. 48, vi. 67) was not unaware of the danger and inconvenience of the 
practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in 
Homer's warfare, a remarkable mixtui'e of barbarism with regularity. Though the 
art of forming an armv in phalanx was known and conmionly practiced, yet the busi- 
ness of a general, in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call if 
*ashion, of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill 
m arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 2.'')2). excel only 
in the character ol fighting s9ldiers : as senei'als and directors of the war they are 
inferior to many. Indeed, -while the fate of the battles depended so nnich on the skir- 
mishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which t-et the 
ilile arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obviously means to 
•"KDose the absurdity and mischievous consequences of that n-ejudice. \» here »<o makes' 



P III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 157 

Hector (Tl. xxii. 99), in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polvda- 
mas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very 
extensive and very accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of hi* 
own age, was still very imperfect." — Ih. 

§ 51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted wholly to the. 
dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made upon certain con- 
ditions. This was effected throuo'h legates, fully commissioned for the purpose. 
In forming a treaty of peace, various cereinonies were observed, partly of a 
relicjious character. A victiin was slain, of which however no meal was made, 
hut its flesh was cast aside; libations were poured out; the parties joined 
hands in pledge of good faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their 
covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose 
thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjtired. 'i'he restoration of phm- 
der was generally a preliminary requisition ; and the conquered party was often 
compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnificatinn. — Sometimes the 
whole war was terminated by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by 
its issue. 

IV. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

§ 52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it is not to be 
expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refinement in what pertains 
to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages their mode of living was nearly as 
r<]de as their morals. Their principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, 
goats, and deer, which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and 
fish was more seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vege- 
tables. The first and most common drink was water; wine, however, was in 
frequent use; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinking-vessels 
were employed at their repasts. Ordinarily they had two meals a day, at mid- 
day and evening, and in the earlier limes it was the Greek custom to sit at 
table, not to recline. The number of persons at one table was seldom greater 
than ten. 

It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (cf P. V. § 31), that the persons at a social 
repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the Muses. — 'The 
Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respeciing the proper number at a 
repast {Gell. xiii. 11). Adam. 

"Homer mentions three different sorts of seats: (1) itfpo;, which contained two 
persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank ; (2) dp6 o;, on which they sal up- 
right, having under their feet a footstool termed r/)}y"i,- ; (3) <cX(T/i-^f, on which they sal 
leaning a little backwards." Robinson. — Ct. Hunt. Odys. i. 130, 131. 

§ 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned by public 
solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and the like. Some- 
times they were made at the common expense of the guests (c'paj^oj, cf. Orfyss. 
i. 2"2()) ; such entertainments, however, were viewed as of inferior rank. 'Fhe 
feasts upon victims offered in sacrifice have been mentioned (§ 27). 

At table the guests sat according to a definite ordrr. 'I'lie begiuMing was 
made by washing the hands. In early times a separate board was placed for 
each guest, and his portion of food thus divided to hi n. Wine was broughl 
by youthful cittendants, and the guests often drank to e.ich other, and recipro- 
cally exchanged cups. They endeavored to heigliten the joys of the banquet 
by conversation and wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P. 
IV. § 68. 

§ 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and i\iore ample, an 1 m^re 
completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next to the body they 
wore a long robe or frock (;^'.rioi^), which was k^pt in place by a oirdle, and 
over this a cloak (x.'^acva) of thicker materials, t> protect ;ioainsL the cold. 
Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mintle (-j??!, >-)?). 'i'lie women wore 
also long cloaks or over-garments, called TtenXot, often richly eml)roidered and 
ornamented. 'I'hey likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not tn 
h ive done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war Shoes 
or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war" the men 
wore a sort of boot, or greaves (§ 44). 



158 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

' § 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strenjrfh, tlie early Greek?, 
practiced frequent balhinor, and with it united tbe custom of anointing". In 
hathinff they made much use of the sea-water, on account of its purifying and 
strencrthenino- properties. They also had warm baths in their houses. After 
takinjT the bath they anointed the body with oil; costly ointments, expressly 
[)repared for the purpose, were of later inventirm. They cultivated in every 
way the growth of the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal 
beauty and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown. 
They were also pleased with frizzb d or curled locks, and employed artificial 
means to secure such forms to their hair. 

§ 5(j. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in the earlier 
periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions of Homer, which, 
aside from their poetical character, relate only to the palaces or dwellings of 
distinguished personages. (Cf. P. IV. § 232,) Respecting these we may 
remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded by some kind (f a wall, not very 
high; between the wall and the house itself was the fore-court, in which an 
altar usually stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main 
building or house, often highly ornamented without and within; although the 
art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection which Greek 
architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the dinin'g- 
hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment. The roofs- were flat, as 
in oriental countries, and often served as places of resort both by day and by 
night. 

§ 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, and the 
needy; and the rites of hospitality were held sacred among them, .lupiter 
himself was considered as the god and rewarder of hospitality, and the aventjer 
of all violations of its laws, and on that account was styled ^bvlo^ (P. II. §25). 
Tliey had no public inns (cf. § H)8), but travelers found reception with those 
who stood related to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not 
only between particular persons, but also between whole cities and communi- 
ties. Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each 
other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome 
reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes 
this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. On separating, it 
was common tf) unite in a friendly repast, and renew their pledge of mutual 
friendship over the wine. Valued gifts were sometimes bestowed on the de- 
parting guest. 

§ 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture may be first 
mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and means of living. The 
boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, which served to guard the 
cultivators against mutual encroachments. The culture of the vine and of 
trees was also an object of attention. The raising of cattle was a common 
employment, and a principal source of wealth. These employments were not 
considered in any way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of 
eminence and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be 
mentioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from 
depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the bow and 
arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and fishing were 
likewise a frequent employment. 

"^rhe nets (-^f va) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishing were made of flax (XiVa) ; 
the meshes (fjpoxoi'' bemg of various sizes according to the use intended. In hunting, the 
nets were supportv^d by stakes (oraXtK-rf) and extended in a curve so as partly to siu-round 
a spa'-e into wliich the animals were driven Several kinds of fishing nets are nmn- 
lioned, of wliivjb the most common were the diJKp.^Xrjcrrpo^ {retiaruhtm) or oasting-uet, 
-ind \\\e (yay?]jr) {tragiim) seine or scan. 

.See Ov;iuin's lornis on Fishing aud Hunting, cf. I'. V § 75 — Ameilhon, su- la [lectie des Anciens, in itie Mem de J'lmt'.tiit. 
<; 1 1SS e (ie f.it. el Heavx Jirts, vnl. v. p. 350. 

§ 59. The employments of womjen consisted partly in the care of the house- 
hold, p.irtly in spinning," weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own 
r.lothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, cooking and wash- 
ng. v^ere j)crformed by the wo'iien. In general, the female sex atnong the 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IX THE EARLIER AGES. 159 

Greeks was in a state of js^reat, although not slavish snhjpotion to the male. 
There .vas connparatively little intercourse between the sexes. I'he vvon!en 
lived chiefly by themselves in the apartment assigned to them, the Fu'-a'-zuiv or 
rviux£Lov, which was in the interior or upper part of the house (^§56). Seldom 
were they allowed to oro abroad. In later times this close discipline and con- 
finement remained in force, and women shared even less than previously in ihf 
business and pleasures of men. 

On the ancient nieUioJ of srin'iing, cf. M^ii^ez, Sur les nieules de moulin emplnyees jar es Ancieiis, in 'he Mem. de Vlmli'ul, 
Classe i'Hisl. el Lit.Jlnc. vol. iii. p. -441 

On the stale of feim.vs. R G. Lent, Ge-chichte der Wtiber im heroische.i Zeital'er. Hanov. 1790. S. — Rochefort, I.es moeurs Jes 
liifles heniiques, Mem. A ad. Ii.scr vol xxxvi. p. 39G — Cf. § 181. 

§ 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were music and 
dancing. The firmer consisted of vocal and instrumental, which were always 
united; and it was designed for instruction as well as gratification. Hence 
music, although in a m.ore extended sense of the term, was an essential ol)ject 
in education. (Cf. § 179, and P. IV. § 63.) The lyre was the stringed in- 
strument the most in use, and of wind instruments the flute was the most 
common. The former enjoyed the preference, because it was more easily ac- 
commodated to song, and also left the performer at liberty to use his voice. — 
The subjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most 
generally used at banquets and religrious festivals, which were also the most 
common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customary to joiii various 
spoits and exercises of the body, as leaping, running, riding, wrestling, and 
the likp. 

. § ()I. Marriaore and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in connection vvith 
the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the daughter was usually 
given by the father. It consisted of female ornaments, a portion of the flov^KS 
and herds, and the like. There were no degrees of consanoruinity forbidden 
in marriage, except that between parents and children; yet it was considered 
as highly censurable for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage 
the consent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the 
bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously, 
according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. In this 
procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the newly married, 
and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths and virgms. Dancing 
usually accompanied the music; and the whole was followed by a nuptial 
feast. A widow seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not ex- 
pressly forbidden. At least, it did not take place until five years or more after 
her W'idowhood. 

§ 62, Parents of the better class took special care of the education of theii 
children, both physical and moral. The mother was accustomed to nurse her 
own children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or con 
dition. The aid of others in this respect was sought only in cases of absolute 
necessity. In subsequent years the children had particular teachers and over- 
seers, who instructed iheni in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the 
art of war. Cf. P. IV. § 64, § 71. 

On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, revererce, and 
obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benediction, and considered his 
curse as the greatest of evils. They endeavored to repay to parents in old 
age the care experienced by themselves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly 
required by law. They looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict v< n- 
geance on such as had injured their fathers. 

0.1 respect pa d to nl I age amon? the ancien's cf Class. Journ. iii. 142. 320; iv. 3I0. On the manners and morals ol iHt 

earlier ases. cf R-chefotl as ci'ed § 59.— C. P. levisi/ue, Sur les .Moeu-s de- Grers du temps d'Hninere, in th= .Utm. dc rinsliiul 
Classe de.i Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. li. 

§ 6.3. The slaves {bov%oi) of the Greeks, male and female, were persons that 
had been taken prisoners in war (d!;xua\coro5, diSpartoc^oi). or were purchased 
of others. Slaves of the latter class were not common in early times. The in 
troduction of commerce or trade in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the 
island of Chios, at a later period. The master had an almost unlimited pov er 



160 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

over his slave, extending' even to the right oi' life and death. Sometinnes the 
gift of lit)eity was hestowed. 

Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, v^'ho were accus- 
tomed to let their services for hire (^rr??, Tt^'karai,), especially in the agricul- 
tural and pastoral employments, which were originally so common in Greece. 
A retinue of servants for mere display or luxnr}' was not indulged in during 
the period of which we have thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99. 



II. — Of ihe later and more Jiouri shin g ^ges. 

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 

§ 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the advancement 
of civilization; although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was 
chiefly of early origin, engrendered and I'ostered by the ignorance, superstition, 
and sensuality of the first ages. The mythical fictions were enlarged, the 
modes of representing the gods were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacri- 
fices, and all the solemnities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. 
The pomp and splendor of their religion became very imposing, -especially at 
the period distinguished for the flouri^hinor state of all their affairs. At that 
time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the representation and 
illustration oi' religious story, and the ornamenting of religious edifices. (Cf. 
P. IV. § 178, 197, 198,231.') This circumstance gives additional interest and 
importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. 

§ 65 a. The iemples [vaot, if pa) were still built in a simple taste, yet in greater 
number and splendor. The interior had commonly two parts, of which the 
innermost was the sanctuary [abvtov), into which the priest only entered. The 
place where stood the statue or image of the god to whom the terhple belonged 
was in the middle of the temple, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice 
work or the like, and therefore termed ayjxbi;. 

Originally the Greeks," like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of mountains 
or hills, where they atterwards fiist erected tlieir temples. When in the common creed 
the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, &c., as their appropriate pro- 
vinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed agreeable to the several gods. 
More than one deity, however, were sonietimrs worshiped in the same temple; ihey 
were then called avvi/aoL or o-woiKerai ; and when iliey had a common altar, *<ni/^/?w//o(. 
Different styles of architecture were used for different deities; Doric pillars, e. g. lor 
Jupiter or Mars; Ionic, ior Bacchus, Apollo, Diana; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. 

The temple usually stood in a space inclosed ly a fence orv.all {'ipKos, TCpiffoXoi,), which 
contained, besides the temple, often other sacred buildings and a grove; the whole space 
was called Tcptsvoi, a term sometimes restricted to the space set apart in the temple ibr 
the image of the gdd. 

In the temple, some say at the door, others near the a6vTot/, was placed a vessel of 
stone or brass {nepifpa^Tfipwj) filled wi;h holy water for the purpose of s-prinkling those 
admitted to the sacrifices. The part of the temple before the ar]K6s was called iziohixc: ; 
that behind it uttkt'MSoih;. The outer porrh was termed TrpoirtAa or TrpoTrvXata. — There 
also belonged to the temple a treasury {ipxeiov) for preserving its own property, or that 
of others intrusted to i . — The statues and ofiluitigs to the gods found in the temples 
have been spoken of {'^ 21, 28). Statues called ^.tonsTri , fallen from Jiipiler, were kept 
in the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed from the sight of all but the 
priests. 

Fur o'her par'iculars respecting Itie structure of Ihe temples, see P. IV. ) 234. 

§ 65 b. The altars (f3co^6t) were placed towards the east, and had various 
forms, round, square, or oblong. They w'fire ornamented with horns, partly 
that the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that supplicants 
might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for refuge. Perhaps also 
they were considered as a symbol of dignity and power. The names of the 
deities, to whom the altars were sacred, were usually inscribed upon them, 
Altars, as well as temples, were consecrated to their proper use with solemn 
■'eremonies, particularly by anointing. 



PLATE X \' 1 1 1 




163 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter Olympiuh 
is said to have been tv/enty-two feet high. The ahars of the terrestrial gods were 
lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were made in pits or 
trenches {% 29) used instead of altars. The nymphs were worshiped in caves (avrpa) 
Altar-s were formed of various materials; often of earth, or of ashes, as that at Thebes 
to Apollo S7rdf?(yj ; sometimes of horn, as that at Delos; sometimes of brick; often of 
stone ; some were overlaid with gold (cf $ 26). They were either square or round ; 
and were often highly ornamented by sculpture. 

Dif!t'reiit forms of altars are given in the Sup. Plate 30, where are seen an altar of Jupiter, 
one of Neptune, and one of IJacchus. Cf. $ 205. 

§ QiQ. The practice of appropriating sacred groves for the honor and service 
of the gods was also retained in later times. Their agreeable shade, as well 
as the stilln ^ss reigning in them, was favorable to pious meditation. Although 
the use of groves was diminished by the multiplication of cities and villages, 
yet a grove once dedicated to the gods remained forever sacred and inviolable. 
As well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, although 
this privilege was conferred upon them only by a special consecration for the 
purpose, and did not belong to all the places of religious worship as a matter 
of course. The privilege of being such asylums or places of refuge was some- 
times awarded to the statues and tombs of heroes. — Certain portions of land 
and cultivated ground were also assigned to the gods, which were likewise 
called tBfjLivri, the fruit of which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share 
of the priests. 

A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, was consecrated 
to Ceres and Proserpine, and called 'Opyaj. — Trees were also set apa'-t and with cere- 
mony consecrated to some god {Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). 

The privileges of the sacred temples, as asyla, continued until tht- 'eign of Tibe- 
rius Caesar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged {Tac. Ann. iii. 
60-63). on account of the abuse of them by worthless villains. 

Simon, Les asyles, Mem Acad. Inscr. iii. 35. — R. Mayo, Mytirtngy, vol. i. p. 1.56 — S. Peg^e, History of ttie Asylum, &c. in tlie 
irchxolDgia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 1. 

§ 67. The three principal duties of the priests (tfpfts, called also Ispovpyot,, 
^foupyot, ^vtai) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. With these were united 
sometimes the declaration and interpretation of oracles. The requisite qualifi- 
cations for the priesthood were a bod}' free from all defects and. blemishes 
{o%6x'K7]pos xai a^£%.yig)^ lawful birth (yrrtjioc), and an irreproachable course of 
life. Upon the rank of the (rod depended tlie number of the priests, who were 
employed to attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the various 
functions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, if not 
more (ap;>;t,fpEtj, IfpobL^dcxaXot, Upo^di-rai), charged with the oversight of the 
religious worship in general [dp^Lspiocvvyj). — The office of the parasites (ytapa- 
ftLtoi) was to collect the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices (TtpoaoSta 
asya'ka) into the storehouse appropriated therefor (TtapafftVtov). — The heralds 
(xripvxf-i;) were ranked among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents 
(vFcoxopot) whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples. 

The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, and their 

head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet and a crown of the 

leaf sacred to their particular god. 

In our Plate XX VII. fig. C. i& a view of a Grecian priest and priestess, in their robes-; each has 
a thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of Bacchus, and a vessel in the olher. 
The priestess is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monument given in Moses, 
Antique Vases, Altars, &c. 

1. Priests holding their office by inheritance (§22) were called hi £«■ ytwi? ; those 
who received it by lot, kXipmtoI ; those by election, (upeTo). or txpripiaiiL'OL. Some of ti;e 
Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheritance were the R'/^cA- 
TTi^ai, intrusted wi'h the oversight of the Elusinian mysteries; KnpvKc?, descendnnts 
of Ceryx ; the e.jiAw 'iVat, descendants of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at 
Argos also, called 'A<£aTop'Jai. Priestes.ses (Irptiai, dpriTEipai, dpxiip^tni, l^pocpavri^ci;) were 
taken from noble families. Those of Ceres were termed MeXiaaai ; those of Bacchus, 
Bn<xat, 0'uxk(;, IMnivarkf. — Somptimes services connected with the worship of the gods 
were performed by persons not properly belonging to the priesthood {Kr.XMpLajxkvoi rrj; 
iepcjovi^rj^) ; as e. g- sacrificers (IipoTro oi), of whom ten are said to have been appointed 
annually at Athens, and who conducted all the usual sacrifices ; keepers of the tem 
"le and utensils ( rtoi/d'.XafEj) ; stewards or treasurers {raixiai nov lepav xp'?/-' i«'»:'). — Priests 



i 

p. Ill REl IGIOUS AFFAIRS. SACRIFICES. OATHS. 163 

who were constantly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of the people a: 
sacrifices, were called UpoTroXoi S^aoi^. — AH who served the gods were mainlained out 
of the sacrifices and offerings. — At Athens, those intrusted with the care ot religion 
were required to render an account of tneir doings to certain . civil officers appointed 
for the purpose The 'lepofxrri^w > seems to have beei charged with keeping the sacred 
records. The priests had attendants called Icpo'oAoi. 

On the priesthood of the Greeks, see J. lOeuser, Der Helleiien Priesterstaat mil vorzUglich RJcksicht auf die Hierodulen. RIaiiiz. 
—Class. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Boi/ganiuiHc, Ues ministres des Dieux a Alhenes, in the Mem. Acad. Insa: xviii. 60 ; xxiii. 5L — 
Lelrunne, Sur les fonctions des Hieromiiemons &c. in the Mem. de V Institut , Classe d'/Tist et Lit. Anc. vol vi. 221. 

2. Purification has already been mentioned (§ 23) as a rite of great importance 
among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priesiesses were 
obUged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attending the 
solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprinkled with the water in 
the -eptfpavTfipioi' (ct. § 6.5 a). 7'his water was consecrated by putting into it a burning 
torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel (;'d(/)-'»7) or olive. Purificaiion was also some- 
times made by drawing round the person a sea-onion or squill (o-kiAXu), or a young 
dog (TruXaf) ; sometimes eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a 
pig; Some of n,3 terms employed to designate purifying are -rrrp-fpaivsi", mpijxaTTtaSa'., 
Ka^a'pziv, hyui^Eiy, [Xao-^..f, nyviaixdi, reXeni, &c. — Sometimes in purifications not only the 
hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. 

§ 68. The sacrifices had different names according' to the occasions of them. 
The lhank-i>ffering (;v:apta'r-/;pta) was in recoo-nition of some favor received, 
often in fulfilment of some vow made; the sin-offering {ju^anrtxa) was in order 
to propitiate an offended deity ; the invocali (m-(fferivg (dtT»;rtza) was presented 
in case of seeking- some particular f vor. There were other panicular sacri- 
fices, which were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god. 
((XTt'o ^avrsta?). 

• 'I'he beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the libalioji 
{oTioi'hr^, § 24. 2); then followed the i7Kense, the burning of something fragrant 
(^D^t-'a^ta) ; and at length the sncrijice itself, properly speaking, or the slaying 
of the victim (^tpftot). The principal ceiemonies have already been mentioned 
(§ 27). — Persons who had the right of being- present at a sacrifice were termed 
a,3ij3r]Xoo, and those who had not, ^^^•q'koi. The latter were called upon by the 
heralds to retire before th'.> ceremonies commenced. 

Different ai'iraals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as h,is been mentioned 
in treating of ihe ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, however, was the 
ox (|53"?) ; hence the term 'io O'tu-, to sacrifice oxen: those assistants who slew the 
victims were called (in^Mrai. }3ulls ( a-^o ), sheep (oi?:?), and goals ( ity-s) were often 
offered. The bringing of the victims to the abar was expressed by such phrases as 
■npo(j\y£iv T(o jtf'ij/iw, or Trapaarmai <:vuiav roT; ^MpMi^ ; they were often brought adorned with 
garlands (TT'^fjiixara). and were always required to be free from blemishes (teXeioi). After 
the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of ihe entrails {GnXayxiOTKonia) 
was made by the soo'hsayer ((rrr'XaY\v6aKOTro;) . to ascertain the presages ot the future. 

Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed to offer 
cakes of coarse flour {irnna'n, rr^hivoi, -rrkiiixara) ; these were sometimes made in the shape 
of animals. 

It does not appear tn have l)Pen ever an approved custom among the Greeks to offer human 
pairifices, although it was repeatedly done; cf P. II $ 17. Theiiiisiochs is said to have sacri- 
ficed to the (jods several Persian captives. (Plvta'ch, Them.) Human victims were sacrificed 
particularly lo the ttianes and infernal grids. — Cf. Lactavliiis, De Falsu Religii'iie. c. 1\.—Evt~ebius, 
Prae|). Evang. iv. Ifi. 

§ 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oafhs of the Greeks, in which 
they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury. 
They distinguished between the solemn or great oath (j ^utya? opxog) and affir- 
mations in ordinary cases, .lupiter was considered as especially the god and 
g-uardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury, although oatlis were taken in the 
name of other gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great 
superior gods {fxa hCjhixa ^fov?). Sometim(>s they swore by the gods, indefi- 
nitely and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weaprns. or 
any article of which they made use. Not unfrequenlly the oath was in the 
name of living or deceased men. such especially as had been hi<rh1y esteemed 
and loved. The oath was usually joined with a distinct imprecation of ven- 
geance on the swearer himself in case of falsehood ; and was sometimes con 
firmed by a .sacrifice, the flesh of which, however, could not be eaten.' Severo 
punishments were decreed against perjury {fjtto^ixia). Yet the Greeks, espe- 



164 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cially the Tliessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. A 
least mutual distrust was characteristic of the corrupt Greeks of later times, 
and among the Romans the phrase Graeca Jidts was synonymous with perfidy. 

Leagues and covenants were confirmed by making oaths and slaying sacrifices; 
lence opKia rkjAvtiv signifies to enter into covenant. Notwithstanding the great perfi- 
diousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath (ivopKos) as of course 
a pious person {emsPfis). 'AmKn -nicTii signifies honest faith. 

Maxsieu, Sur les Serments des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. i. p. 191 ; vol. iv. p. 1. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
p. 649. 

§ 70. The opinion was very early entertained, that the gods honored certain 
men, especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. There were supposed 
to be two modes of revelation; one immediate, by direct inspiration; and the 
other mediate or artificial, which was considered as the fruit of great knowledge, 
experience, and observation. Oracles (;^p)2rrr7;pta, ^Kxytaa) were of thf^ first 
kind; and the second kind was divination {jxavtLxri). — From orac/es, the Greeks 
were accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and unde'^'^^akings, predic- 
tions of the result (;^p>7(5/Aot, %6yia, ^lavT'sv^u-ara). It is obv'ous that they could 
be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose artifice their exist- 
ence and support are in great measure to be ascribed. The oracular answers 
were not given in any one uniform manner, but sometimes immediately, as was 
pretended, from the gods (;^p>;?(j^ot avto^tdvoi), sometimes through an interpreter,' 
{x'^<^l^oi vTio^rj-tLxoi), or by a pretended dream, or by lot. 

Persons who consulted the oracles were termed ^ifmpoKoi, ^swpol, xpwiJ^o-^opoi ; the in- 
terpreters, xpi'^i^'^^^yoi. Presents and sacrifices vv^ere always requisite before consulting 
an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days. 

The question has been agitated, whether the responses uttered fronri the ancient oracles were 
the mere imposture of priests, or proceeded from the agency of Satan making use of their delu- 
sions. Van Dale in a learned treatise urged tiie former view. FunievtlU advocated the same 
side. Baliiis with much learning maintained the latter view, in agreement with some of the 
Christian Fathers. 

Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was 
designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of oracles. " We fo.und at the foot 
of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious telltale remains yet discovered aniong the 
vestiges of pagan priestcraft; it was nothing less than one of the oracular shnr.es of Argos, 
alluded to by Pausuvias, laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he 
may see the contrivance whereby it was made to speak. A mo^e interesting sight for modern 
curiosity can hardly be concerved to exist among the ruins of aniy Grecian city. In its original 
state, it had been a temple; the farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an 
excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, 
and part oi i\\e fictile superstructurf ; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a secret sub- ' 
terraneous passage, terminating behind the altar; its entrance being at a cotisidernble distance 
toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to have a small 
aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough 
to admit the entrance of a single person ; who, having descended into the narrow passage, might 
creep along until he arrived immediately behind the center of the altar; where, being hid by 
some colossal statue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce a most imposing 
effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneatii, who were listening in silence upcm the 
floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeavoring to mimic the 
solemn farce acted upon these occasions ; and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotavilo, from 
the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides ot' the rock, afforded a 
tolerable specimen of the ' unll of the frnih,' as it was formerly made known to the credulous 
votaries of this now forgotten shrine There were not fewer than ticenty-five of these juggling 
places in Pelcponvcsus, and as many in the single province nf Bamtia ' and surely it will never 
again become a question among learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the 
insi)iration of evil spirits, or whether the> proceeded from the imposture of priests ; neither can 
it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ: because Pausuvias (CorinlL c. 24, p. 165, ed 
Kuhnii) bears testimony to their existence at Jirgos in the second century." 

See Van Dale, DeOraculis veterum Eitinicoium. Amst. 1700. 4.—^. Fontentlle, Histoire des Oracles. La Haye, 172S. 12.- 
/ F. Eallm, Answer lo Foiilen' lie's Hislory of Oracles; Iransl. from the Freiicli. I.onrl. 1710. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. Rullm, bk. x. ch. 
ip. 391. vol. I eJ. cited § 13) Blackwood's .Magaz. vol. xiv. p- 277. 

§ 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished of the 
ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the 
Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. Before this time, however, this 
oracle, of Pelasgic origin (cf. P. IV. § 41), seems to have existed in that place. 
There was a grove of oaks, sacred to .Tupiter, and superstition ascribed the 
actual exercise of the gift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, 
which were thence called fiavtixai Spi;? j. The priests, called aTiotprj-tai and 
StXXot, concealed themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the 
irelended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near 
r;e temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A fountain in the place was 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 165 

likewise celebrated as possessinor the wonderful power, not only of extingv)ish- 
ing d lurch, but of kindling it again. 

1. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves, 
which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announced 
them, were called in the Thessahan language TrcXeiai, and Tre^Eidks. 1 here were also 
priests called ro/xo-poi, whose business was to interpret the sounds of ihe vessel on cer- 
tain occasions. Two columns stood by the temple ; to one of which the vessel was 
attached ; on the other was a boy with a sc6urge in his hand ; the ends of the sco.irge 
consisted of little bones, which being moved by the wind knocked against the metallic 
vessel attached to the other column. — From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase 
Aa)5tovaTov xaXxeTov, apphed to talkative persons. — The temple is said to have stood upon 
an eminence near a fountain. — In the Sup. plate 28 is a view of Dodona, in which 
many of the allusions to the oracle are represented. 

Saltier, and De Brasses, L'Oracle de Dodona, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 35. xxxv. p. 89. — Cordes, De oraculo Dodonaeo. 
GrOnirig. 1826. 8 — /. Ariieth, Ueber das Tauben-orakel von Dodona. Wien, 1840, 8. — Lassavlx, Das Pelasgische Orakel des Zeus 
zu Dodona. WUrtzb 1840. 8. 

On the site of the temple, cf. Pouqueville, as cited P. I. § 87. 

2 u. Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in a desert and almost inac- 
cessible region of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the 
Great. 

3. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered by the English traveler 
Browne in 1792, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. RenneWs Geo?. Syst. of Herod, sect. 21.) Near it 
was the famous fountain ofthr sun. The spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. (Cf P. I. $ 179.) 
The rtiins of the temple indicate an Egyptian origin. — When this oracle was consulted, a splen- 
did statue of the god was carried in procession by numerous priests (cf. P. II. $ 24). A view of 
it is given in the Sup. Plate 29. 

4. Several other oracles of Jupiter are mentioned. Herodotus speaks of four : at Egyptian 
Thebes ; at Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia ; and says the one at Thebes 
was the original. Besides these, there was an oracle of Jupiter in Boeotia ; also in Elis at Olyni- 
pia ; and one in Crete, in a cave of Mount Ida. 

§ 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were considered to 
oelong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renowned was that at 
Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple illustrious beyond all 
others on account of its treasures, the abundance and costliness of the gifts 
bestowed there. The spot where the answer was given, was called Pythium 
(Ilv^tov), and the priestess, who uttered it, Pythia (llxj^ta), from the surname 
which Apollo received in consequence of killing the serpent Python (riv^wv). 
This spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited 
earth (6|it^a>.o$ 7*Js). According to common tradition this oracle was first dis- 
closed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt. Parnassus, 
were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and jumping. 'J'he same 
happened to men, who approached this opening. This oracle was very ancient, 
being celebrated more than a hundred years before the Trojan war. 

1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word 
TTvdtadai, to inquire, or learn; but Yivdw appears to have been originally the name of the 
city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and other splendid works oi 
art. Its walls were inscribed with salutary moral precepts ; among them the cele- 
brated one Tvo'iQi aeavTov. (P. V. § 169.) Costly tripods were among the gifts conse- 
crated to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the 
Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantiiie and placed in 
the Hippodrome of Constantinople, upon the " triple heads" of the three brazen ser- 
pents twisted into one pillar. 

The pillar still remains (Gibbon, ch. 17. p 80. vol. ii. N. Vorii, 1822). — The three heads are said to have been in ?nocl preserva 
tioc when Constantinople was taken by the Turks ; Mahomet II. then rode into the Hippodrome and shattered one of Iheni with hi? 
battle ax ; two were remaining in 1700; but they were stolen about that lime by some unknown depredator. (Cf Loud Quart. 
Rev. ix. 169.) On the origin of the Delphic oracle, cf Mitford's Greece, ch. 3. sect. 2. 

2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf § 28), and the celebrity of the ora 
cle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the chief authority 
over it, occasioned much jealousy among the Grecian states; in two instances par-, 
ticularly they were involved thereby in actual hosiiliiies, in the wars commonly called 
Sacred. 

Mitfcrd's Hist, of Greece, cb. xxxvii-xlii. — De Valois, Guerres Sacrees, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. vii. 201. ix 97. xii. 177. 

§ 73. The tripod (r'ptrtorj Arp»?*5'^'':p^oj), upon which the priestess sat in uttei 
ing the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable things pertaining to 
the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the seven wise men of Greece, and 
has been viewed as having a threefold reference, to the past, the present, anc* 



166 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the fnture. The Dv^i-a herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity 
and was obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many cereinoiiies. 
In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ecstasy and 
convulsion. In early times, the oracular response was commonly clothed in 
the form of hexameter verse; often by a poet employed for the purpose. Ori- 
ginally the oracle was consulted but on a single day in the year, in a month of 
the spring, called Bvatoj or Iluatos ; afterwards inquiry could be made on a 
certain day of every month. Whoever wished to consult the oracle was re- 
quired to make large presents and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and 
to propose his questions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified 
for receiving the answer by many mystic rites. The, answer was commonly 
so enigmatical and ambiguous (xo|o?, hence Ao|i,a$), that it would apply to any 
result that might happen; and whenever it was clear and definite, the priests 
had informed themselves of all the preliuiinary circiunstances and the proba- 
bilities respecting the issue. — The Delphic oracle was suspended at various 
times, and became finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian. 

Originally, there was one Py'/iia (or tt/jo /).:?"?) only at Delphi; but after the oracle 
became more frequented, the number was increased to three, chosen from among the 
uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chastity. 
They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost iheir lives in the paroxysms of the in-' 
spiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclamations. 
fhree in number, were called -rrpxplrai ; who always took care to ascertain, previously 
much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. The prophets 
were aided in the sacrifices and ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pylhia 
on the tripod, by five priests called oo-iot, wno were under a chief called bc-icorrip. — 'i he 
nepiriyrirai were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in point- 
ing out to them its curiosi ies. A great number of persons were required for the va- 
rious services of the temple and oracle. — See plate p. iii. [Frontisp. of Class. Ant.J 

On this oracle of Apollo, see Hardion. Oracle de Uelphes, in the Mem. Jlcad. hisDr. vol. iii. p. !37. — C. F. IVihttr, De Re i;; one 
ei Oracuin Apollinis Delphici. Hafn. 1S27 — K. D HUllmau'), Wilrdisiina; ties Delphischen Orakels. Bonn, IS37. — IV. Go'le. 
D.is Delphische i rakel, in seinem politische , religiosen, unJ sittlicheii Einfluss. Leipz. 1?39. — fi. H. Klause.n, in Ersch uiifi 
Gruber, Encyclopadie, under Orakel 

§ 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. The more 
important of them were the following: the oracle of Apollo at Didym.a, which 
was called also the oracle of the Branchidae ; those of Delos, Abae, Claros, 
Larissa, Tegyrae and other minor cities ; where answers were also given from. 
Apollo; the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea in Bceotia, in a subterranean 
cave, said to have been the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers des- 
cended, after performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of 
the fnture by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vicinity 
of Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by 
dreanis. — The number of the ancient oracles amoimted to two hundred and 
sixty. 

1. I'he oraclf! nf Trnptinniits is described chiefly by Paiisariias (ix. 37), who says he entered 
the cave. The oracle was upon a nioiiiilain, vvliere was a grrnve, temple, and statue of Trupho- 
riiiis. Within an iiiclosiire in:ide of white sioiies, upon which were erected obeiislts of brass, 
was an artific.i;tl o()ening like an oven; here hy a ladder the person consulting the oracle 
descended, carrying in his hands a certain composition of hmiey On returnin?, the person was 
required to write down what had been seen or heard. — In Plate XIX. is a representation of this 
oracle — As there was a story that a visitor to th ' cave never smiled after his return, it became 
common to describe a gloomy person by saying he had b^^en to the cave of Trophonius ; see an 
amusing ap[)!icalion of this, in Jiddisoit's Spectator, No. ."1.59. 

The cave is s ill pointed out to travelers ; also the two fountains Mntnwsyite and Lethe. — See Clarke, Travels, &c. — Poiiqiuville, 
Voyaze, &c. vol iv. p. 171. 

2 There were numerous oracles of Asclepius or TEsculapius ; of which the most celebrated 
was at Eiiidanrus. Hf-re the sick sought responses and the recovery of their health by sleeping 
[iiicubalid) in the temple. It was imagined by F. A. Wolf, that what is now called unimal mair- 
neiifnii or McsmeHsiii was kiiowri to the priests ^f those temples where the sick spent one or more 
nighi.? for Ine imrjjose of recovering their health. 

Cf. F. A. H-'tlf, Bcylra^ zur Gesch. des Sonmanihulismus aus liem Allertliuni ; in his f^ermischte Schriften, 

§ 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediniely (cf. § 70), or by means 

of some system or art of- divi nation duavtcxyj), was effected in various ways. 

'['he most important was by thenmancy (^?o^iai>rfia), an art possessed by a 

i";!ass of persons who were called ^fofxavrft?, and claimed to be under divine 

nspiration. This class comprised three varieties; some were considered as 



2SIIS 




p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVINATION. 167 

interpreters of the demons by whom they were possessed, and called ^aifiovo- 
Xr^Tttoi or 7iv^u)vss; others were called sv^ovGLaatat or h^eaatixoL, and enjoyed 
only the intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed 
sxctaTfixoi, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during" a wholly superna- 
tural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by the pretext of a 
long Irance, insensibility,- or sleep. 

Besides what was termed in general theomancy , there were several methods of 
divination, of which the following were the principal. — 1. By dreams, dnifonoXla. '1 he 
Greeks ascribed very much to dreams as supernatural, and viewed them either as 
revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as pictures and images of 
future events. The expounders of dreams were called dyetfOKpirat, oveipocKo-noi, or ovei.- 
poTToXoi. 'I'hree varieties of the dream are named ; Xi^rinaTian% , when a god or spirit 
conversed with one in his sleep; opaiia^ when one saw a vision of future occurrences ; 
dvEipo;, in which the future was set forth by types and figures ('iXXT/yopt/cwj). Two other 
varieties are also mentioned, tvvTri/wv and (lid^jraajxa, but are not considered as affording 
much help m divination ; f^iaXrj?;, incuhns, night-mare, was supposed sometimes to 
indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to he sent from the god of sleep (P. II. 
'^ 113); and from Jupiter {Horn. II. i. 63). A goddess called Brizo {Pp'Xen^, to sleep) 
wab tnought to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particu- 
larly in Delos. Dreams which occurred, in the morning were most regarded in 
divination. 

See Artemidorus, as cited P. V. § 261.—Burigny, Songez, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. rfe? Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 74.— Theory of 
Dreams, cited P. U. § 1 13. 

2. By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy (lEpojxavTsia.) or Hieroscopy (iipoaKoma) 
It comprehended the observations of many particulars connected with the offering of 
a victim, as portending good or ill. One. of the principal things was the inspection of 
the entrails, especially the liver (r/Traroo-wTria), arid the heart. The fire of sacrifice was 
also noticed {n-'poyLavrda) ; likewise the smoke {KaTrvofiauTeia), the wine {divonavTeia) , and 
the water {v^popiavTELa, TtrjyojxavTcia). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this 
divination according to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the dif 
ferent rites ; e. g. there was d\e<'ponai/TEia, by the flower or meal used ; ixdcojxavreia, by 
the entrails of fishes ; woaKonia, by eggs. 

3. By birds, oiMviariKh. Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, were 
called opvEoaKOT^oi, opviOofiavTsig. Somc birds were observed with respect to their fiight 
(rav-7rrfp'iy£f) ; Others in respect to their singing (w5(K-a(). Unlucky birds, or those of ill 
omen, were called e^'.'Xaifjtoi, pernicious, and KojXvriKal, hi7idering from designed under- 
takings, and by similar epithets; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, 
except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered 
as lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of 
the flight of birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appear- 
ances in the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable ; hence the 
use of klLog, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and 
reptiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents, and boars were of ill omen. Bees 
and ants were often thought to foretoken good. 

4. By signs in the heavens {^loariixzla) and other physical rihenomena.. Comets, 
eclipses, and earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and hghtning were lucky 
if observed on the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck wuh thun- 
der {PpovTTirdg) was unlucky ; in places thus struck, altars were erected and oblations 
made to appease the gods, after which, none dared to approach them. 

5. By lots. The two principal modes were those termed arixoaavrda and Kkr^poi^avreia ; 
in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (orixof) written upon them, 
were drawn from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person 
by or for whom they were drawn out ; in the other, various small articles, as beans 
black and white, pebbles, dice, and the like, v.'hich were all called KXnpoi, and were 
considered as being of different significancy, were. drawn from an urn or other vessel, 

-Other modes were pafihixavTeia, by rods, and (ieXopiavrda, by arrows, in which the 
lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posfnre or from the 
quiver. Another was by the use of the irival dyt^priKog, on which certain prophetic 
verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the verse on v/hich the dice fell. 

6. By magical arts. These were said to have originated in Persia am.ong the Mag:. 
uayoi. The degree of attention given among the Greeks to these arts (Trepup)a) is 
(ivinced by a striking fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which seems to imply 
that a great number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the 
various modes need be named ; veKpoptavrda, aKionavrda, and ipvxojiav-da, in which the 
dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yaarpojxavTda, in which demons were ima- 
gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appearance."? 
of water in the middle part {vdarpn) of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted 
torches: Kmoua.'Tzia, in which the performers observed the forms assumed by drop-i 



188 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — The d\tKrp'o^-n.vT'ia 'va« a 5ort 05 
divmation by lot, yet classed among the magical arts; the letters ol the aiphabei wer« 
written in a circle ; a grain of wheat or barley was laid upon each letier , a cock wai 
placed in the center; and the desired inlormation was obtained by putting togethei 
the letters from which the cock picked the grains. — It is proper to :i.ention here some 
of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought ; as, 
6. g., 'jicipiJiaKcia, in which medicated herbs, minerals, and the hke {'[>apnaKa) were used : 
and PaaKa-'ia, which was a sort of fascination or malign influence which certain per- 
sons were supposed to exert. 

See Bimamy and Le Blond, &c. as cited ^ 227. — On divination by the cup, cf. Class. Journ. x. 232. 

7. Finally, divination was also made from various things included under the general 
name of oim7is {(n<ix/3o\a). One class oi these consisted of such as were drawn from 
the person himself, as TT-aX/zol, palpi' ations of some part of the system ; (ion/Sog, a ringmg 
of the ears; Trrap^ol, sneezings, &c. Another class consisted of those drawn trom 
objects external to the person; as the meeting of certain objecis or animals on the 
road (evoita avf.L!3o\a), or certain occurrences at home {to diKOjKOTrtKd.^). Certain words 
were also ominous; such were called oVrai, /fX/y'di/Ef, ([)nijiai. The Greeks, especially the 
Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, carefully substituting others, as, e. g. 
'E'i//m^£j instead of Eptvi'vzs, and <pi\arii; instead of KXcrtm;. 

On tlie ancient art of divination, seo Cicav, De Divinatione. — Cf. Waclismuth, His'orical Antiquities, as cited § 13. — Poller, 
Archaeol. Grsec. bk. ii. ch 12-18. 

§ 76. The fesiivah formed an infiportant part of the religious worship of the 
Greeks. Their establishment and support was partly for the sake of honoring 
and supplicating the gods, and coininemorating persons of merit, and partly 
for the sake of rest, recreation, union, and harmony of social feeling. Their 
number greatly increased with the multiplication of the gods and the progress 
of luxury and wealth; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremo- 
nies increased in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at Athens. 
They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn from 
various sources. 

See M. G. Hermann, Die Feste von Hellas tiistorisch-philosnphisch heirbeitet und zuin erstennia! nach ihreni Sinn und Zwecfe 
eilautert. Berlin, 1^03. 2 Th. 8. 

§ 77 /. Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned (P. II.) 
in the history of particular gods, under the head of Mythology. A slight 
notice of them here must suffice. The principal out of an almost countless 
multitude, will be named in alphabetical order, and then some particulars added 
respecting a few of these. 

\ u. 'A yp t Ml/ 1 a, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. 'AtJ'oi/ta, 

dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis. 'A Xw a, to Bacchus and Ceres. 

'AvBtar-iipia, observed at Athens three days, also in honor of Bacchus. 'ATra- 

rovpia, at Athens, in commemoration of a victory obtained by Melanthus, through 
stratagem, over the Bceotian king Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and orher 

gods. 'A(ppo6i(jia, a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of 

Cyprus. •'EpavpMv la, sacred to Diana, in Attica, celebrated every fifth year. — 

Aalpvriipopia, to Apollo in BcBOtia, only every ninth year. A»?X la, also to Apollo, 

on the island of Delos, every fifth year. ^rj p firpia, sacred toDemeter or Ceres. 

Ati'ftoXft a, an Athenian festival, instituted in honor of Jupiter, as tutelary god of the 
city (rioX(£i)j). ^A to via: a, to Dionysus or Bacchus ; a greater and more solemn festi- 
val in the cities ; and a lesser one in the country ; the same that was called by the Ro- 
mans Bacchanalia. There were innumerable forms of this festival. 'E k qto pj3 a t a, 

dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom they sacrificed a hecatomb on the first day 

of this festival. •RXevr^iv i a, the most celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and 

smaller, connected with the well known mysteries. "F, ppai a, a festival of Mercury, 

in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete. 'E^eo-ta, a festival of Diana at Ephesus. "Hpala, a 

t"estival of Juno at Argos. 'HcpaiaTc la, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, accompanied 

by races with torches.- Q ea po(p6p i a, the festival of legislation in honor of Ceres, at 

Athens and other Greek cities. Kdpveia, sacred to Jupiter and Apollo, almost 

throughout all Greece, for nine days. AvKuia, an Arcadian festival in honor of 

Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. [But this term usually designates a festival of Pan 

corresponding to the Roman Lupercal. Cf P. II. § 80.] '0(TKO(i;dp la, a festival 

of the Athenians instituted by Theseus, and so called from the custom of carrying 

branches about on the occasion'. Uav adv v ai a, one of the most solt^mn festivals 

at Athens, dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated annually ; the greater 

evury fifth 3'ear. Both were connected with various contests and games. UeXio- 

Ota, a. Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance to the Sa- 
htrnalin of the Romans. 'SLpaia^n general name applied to solemn sacnfices. 



TKK 




'M^mM^MM::'MMSMiM 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESl fALS. 169 

wliicli were brought to the gods in the different seasons, with a view to secure gooa 
weather. 

For a more compA ;te enumeration ano description, cf Potter, Arcfiaaol. Gisecs, bk. il. th. 20 — Cf. Lurcher, on certain Greeh 
festivals, in ttie Mem. Mead. hucr. vol. xlv. p. 412 j and xlviii. p. 252. 

2. "The festival called 'A J wn a was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece. 
The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of Adonis 
and Venus were brought forth with all the pomp and ceremonies used at funerals; the 
women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and counterieited other actions usual in. 
lamenting the- dead. This lamentation was called awnacr^w? or dlwna, and hence adWru;.- 
ayeiv signifies the same as "A(5wj/(^ K^aieiv, to weep for Adonis; and the songs on this 
oi'casion were denominated aJajft(5(a. With the images were also carried shells filled 
with earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces ; in memory 
that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called w-of, gardens ; and 
hence 'A&mvi(:o<; Kmoi were proverbially applied to things unlruitful and fading, because 
those herbs were sown only so long before the festival as to be green at that time, and 
were presently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called 
ytyypiai from yiyypr/c, the Phoenician name of Adonis; the music, yiyy^ao-pi,- ; and the 
songs were called yiyypa:>Ta. 1 he sacrifice was denominated Kadt^pa, because the days 
of rrlourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible 
demonstrations of joy and merriment; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, 
Venus obtained that Adonis should return to fife, and dwell with her one-half of every 
year. This fable is applied to the sun Avhich produced the vicissitudes of summer and 
winter." 

Cf. p. U. § Al.—Banier, Culte d'Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr..\t\. iii. p. 98. 

3. "The ^.lovvcTia were sometimes called by the general name of "Opyja, which, 
though sometimes apphed to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged 
to those of Bacchus, 'i hey were also sometimes denominated Ba/cxtTa. They were 
abserved at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition, 
than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by them ; the chief 
archon had a share in their managem.ent ; and the priests who ofiiciated were honored 
with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without 
splendor, being days set apart for pubhc mirth, and observed only with the following 
ceremonies: — a vesselof wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought forth ; next 
followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs ; and after all, the phalli. — At some 
of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated' the poetical fictions 
concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and miters ; carried thyrsi, 
drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, 
and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and 
exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic motions ; some rode upon asses; and 
others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about 
the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men derariged in their intel- 
lects, and crying aloud, EwF Sa/Joi, Ei'ot Bd/cxs, oj Ta<fX£, 'Io/?a«-,XE, or 'Iw Bax-,\;£. 

The great festival, ^loviaia jxeyd'Xa, was sometimes called do-TiKa, or rh kut' octv, be 
cause celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, in the month 
'EXa(/)r//?oX((.ji'. It was sometimes by way of eminence called Aioiwia, because it was 
the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at Athens, and was probably the same 
as Aiovmia dpxa^OTepa. 

The less, iliovvaia fxiKpa, was sometimes called ra Kar dypoi^, because it was observed 
in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater festival, and 
was celebrated in autumn, in the month IIoo-Eifcoy or Yanph'V. Some are ci opinion, 
that it was the same as Aiovvaia \-nvaia, which received its name from X?7:oj, a wine- 
press." 

There appear to have been four Attic festivals in honor of Bacchus; the Aiovvata 
Kar dypovg, the Ar'ivaia, the 'AvBeanipia, and the Aiovr'aia Kar' aar'\ Other festivals in his 
honor are also named. 

In our Plate XXV. fig. e, we liavp a Bacchante dancing with a thyr«iis in one hand and a wine 
cup in the other; in fig. f, another Bacchante with some musical instrument in each hand, per- 
haps the crotaU. A male reveler is seen on the altar of Bacchus, jriven in the Sup,. Plate 30. 

Cf. Scholl, Hist. Lift. Grecque, vol. ii. p. 5, as cited P. V. § 7. 9.— On festivals of Bacchus, see also P. II. § 59 ; P. IV § 66. 2 —See 
Spalding, in the Abhandl. der Bert. AcaJ. ISll ; and A. B'ochh, Vom Uiiterschiede der Attischen LenUen. Antlies'erien, &c in ll:n 
Ibhandl, dcrBerl. Ac. 1819. 

4. " The 'EX£Tjff.£i/(rt was a solemnity observed by the Celcans and Phliasinnb 
every fourth year; by the Pheneats, the Lnrcdamonians, Panhabians, and (.'lelans, 
liut more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at Ehusis, a borough town of 
Attica. It was the most celebrated solemnhy in Greece, and vvas. therefore, by way of 
eminence, called rn fx-aTfpia, the mysteries, and Ts^erri. It is said by some to have been 
instituted by Ceres herself, when she had supplied the Athenians with corn in a iimf 
of famine. S )me say that it was instituted by king Ercc.theus ; and otherp :.v 
Efimolpus. 



170 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

It WIS divided inro the i.aKpa and jxty'iXa n-vrfipia, lesser and greater mysteiies; ai t' 
then tlic latter were in honor of Ceres, the toriTier in that of her daughter Proserpine 
MiKp\ nvjriipta, the lesser mysteries, were observed in the month W^dsoTrjpi ^'v ni Agra, 
a place near the river Ilissus; and the (txeyaXa p. arfipia, greater mysieries, were cele- 
brated in the month Borj-Vw/^tJjy, at Eleusis, a borough-iovvn of Attica, Irom which Ceres 
was called Eleusinia. In later ages the lesser iestival was used as a preparation lO 
the greater, in which they could not be initiated till they had been purified at the 
former. 

About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and 
were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which (with the exception 
of a few known only to the priests) were openly reveale-d to them, and hence they 
were called £(l>op'jL and bwnTai, inspectors. 'Persons of boih sexes and of all ages were 
iniiiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiaiion into these mysteries was consi- 
dered a crime of a very- heinous nature, and formed a part of the accusation for which 
Socrates was condemned to death.— -AH the Greeks might claim initiation into the 
mysteries ; but the people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ; 
and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they 
had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred Irom these 
mysteries. 

The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with 
myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called p-ariKog ariKo:, the mystical temple, 
or u cr-oi'owj 6op'y<:, which was an edifice very capacious (P. II. ^ 63). At their entrance 
they wa?hed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to 
present t/iernselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external clean- 
ness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to 
them out of a book called neTpM^a, from nhpa, a stone, because the book was only two 
stones cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called 
lepofpdi'rns, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon 
after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they 
were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and instantly was 
covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth 
seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called 
avro'^ia, intuition. I'hey were then dismissed in these words, Koy^, ^'Op-at. The gar- 
ments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting 
evils and incantations. 

The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called r^a^ovxog, torch-bearer, to 
whom it was permitted to mavry ; the second, Krip'^, the crier; and the third, 6 em 
l?w;<M. from his ministering at the altar. 'hpocp'iuTn; is said to have been a type of the 
Great Creator of all things; Sahvxog, of the sun; Klp''^, of Mercury; and o izl Piojx'a, 
of the moon. 

There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing that all 
things were perfornted according to custom. Of these was /Jao-tXfOj, the king, who 
was one of the archons, and vvho was obliged to offer prayers and sacrifices at this 
solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregularity was committed during the 
festival ; four cTT-psXrirai, curators, who were elected by the people, and ten persons who 
assisted at this and some other solemmities, and who were called Isponoiol, from their 
offeringr sacrifices. 

This fes'ival continued nine days, and from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of 
the month Vjirj^poiuoy. During this time it was unlawt'ul to arrest any man, or to pre- 
sent any petition ; and they who were found guilty of such practices were fined one 
thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death. 

On the fourth day of the fesnval, they made a solemn procession, in which the 
KaX'.Piij. holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds of persons 
shouting as they went. XaTp:, Arj/Vrp {Hail, Ceres). After these, followed certain 
w.jmen called kutt!) bnpo: , who carried baskets in which v.-ere contained carded wool, 
grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called 
0n;, poppies, &,c. — The fifth was called 'H n'^iv A.a/';r«fey •rpLspa, the lorch-day; because, 
the nigh? followins;, the men and vvomen ran about with torches in their hands. It 
was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present 
the lar,gesr ; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Pro- 
perpit^e with a torch lifrh'ed at the flames of iEtna. — The sixth day was called "laKXo;, 
ffom lacchus, the son of .Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompa- 
lied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, 
and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn proces- 
sion called "\ac\o<;. — -On the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were re 
warded with a measure of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleu-^is." 

R •bhisnn. Arctiae^I Orgeca. — On the KJeDslnian Mysteries, see the references given P II. t 65. — A fuil accoiiiil nf llic Greek mys* 
'Pries is »iven in Limhurg'Brouwer. Histnire de la Civilisation, Mor. et Relig. des Grecs. 

5. The Q£(Tpo,(i>.npia was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed ^sapupopo; (J.egifcra 
'tr i.uwsiver), because she was said to have first taught mankind the use of lav.-s. It 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 171 

was celebrated in many Grecian cities; by the Spartans, the Thebans m Boeotia, the 
Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — " But the Athenians observed this festival with the. 
greatest show of devotion ; the worshipers were treeborn women (it being unlawful 
for any of servile condition to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the 
charges ; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three, talents. 
These women were assisted by a priest called 'ET£(pa:rj(j)6po; , because his head was 
adorned with a crown ; and by ccnain vi/gins, who were kept under severe discipline, 
being maintained at the pubUc charge in a place called Qejjiopopziov. The women were 
clad in white apparel. — 'J hree days at least w£re spent in making preparauons. Upon 
the eleventh ot Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein 
the laws were contaired, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept ; whence 
this day was called "A oroj, the ascent. Upon the lourteenth the festival began, and 
lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a. fust, sitting upon the 
ground in token of humiliation; whence the day was called lSr^a■T^La, 3. fast.'' ^ 

Cf. Pctter. Boyd's ett. p. 378. — JVcllaua; De Thesninphonis. Wraiisl. 1S20, 8. On the Fasts of the ancients, see Morin, L'U^ige 

du Jcune. chez les Anciens, &c. in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 

6. " The YlavaOr\vaia was an Athenian fes'ival in honor of Minerva, the protec- 
tress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius. who called it 'XBvi'aia; and il 
was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all the Athe- 
nian people, and by him was denominated T\.a-'ad-/]vaia. Some are of opinion that it 
was the same as the Roman Quimpintria. At first it continued only one day ; but it 
was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebra*ed wih great magnificence. 

There were two solenini'ies of this name, one of which was called Mf>GXo Uai'aQiy.'aia, 
the Great Panathenaea, and was celeiirated once in five years, beginning on the twenty- 
second of Hecatoinbaeon ; the other was denominated l^i-.Kfa Yla'a-'fiyaia, the Less Pana- 
thensea, and was observed every third year, or. as some ihink, every year, f.eginning 
on the twentieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. In the latter were three garnes, ma- 
naged by ten presidents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who con- 
tinued in office four years. On the firsf day was a race with torches, in which first 
footmen arid afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the 
greater festival, 'I'he second contention was eiaw^pia; dyiov, a gynmasiic exercise in 
which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these 
games was near the river, and was called from the festival liaja^r\va(Kuv. The third 
was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the su' ject proposed was the eulogium 
of Harmndius and Aristogiton. and also of Thrasyhulus, who had rescued the repub- 
lic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended 
in four plays, which from then' number were called rtTpayoyia. Besides these there was 
a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 5.5. — Fauraji. i. 27. 
§ 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with 
a crown of the olives w'hich giew in the Academy, and which were called fxoptai from 
fi'^po;. death, or from fi^pog, a part. There was likewise a dance called Pyrrhichia. per- 
formed by boys in armor, who represented to the sound of the flute the battle of jMi- 
nerva with the Titans. No man was permitted to be present at these games in 
dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the dycjivBhrj^, president of the games. 
Lastly a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, to w^iich every Athenian borough contributed 
an ox; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole 
assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. 

In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, but 
with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In 
particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried the sacred -ettAoj, 
garment of Minerva. This nhXo; was woven by a select number of virgins, who were 
called ipyaartKal, from ipyov, a w-ork, and who were superintended by two of the 
dfpnjj^P'i'., and commenced their empio} ment at the festival 'KaXKrla, which was on the 
thir'ieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered 
with gold: upon it were described the achievemen's of ]\Iinerva against the giants, of 
Jupiter, of the heroes, and of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and \ience 
men of courage and bravery were said to be a^ioi -.h\o':, wor:hy of being portrayed on 
the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession wi'h the .-jStAo; 
were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built, for the pur- 
pose in the form of a ship, upon which the -nhrXog was hung in the manner of a sail, 
which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The TrtTrXof was thus conveyed to 
the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was pla'cd upon 
Minerva's statue, which vvas laid on a bed strewed with flowers, and called -Aa«-tV 
This profession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of ali 
ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, car- 
rying olive l>ranches in their hands ; and hence they were called ^aWodCfjoi, bearers of 
green boughs. Afier these came middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and 
bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied by the jihotKoi, so- 
journers, carrying little boats as emblems of iheir being foreigners, and therefore 
dialled -TKa'pri(p6po- , boat-bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' 



172 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

wives, who were called vr^piatp'poi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. Thest 
'vere followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were 
crowned wiih millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features, 
shape, and deporiment, attracted every eye, and who were called Kavr}.p6{joi, from iheii 
carrying baskets, which contained sacred uiensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the 
sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one v/ho, because he was chief ma- 
nager of the public processions, was called dpxtdtwpoi. The virgins were attended by 
the sojourners' daughters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were 
thence denominated (7icia5q([>6pi}i, umbrella-carriers, and 6i<ppoip6poi, seat-carriers. It is 
probable that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at proces- 
sions, and were called TravhajaKol. The necessaries for this and other processions were 
prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between the Piraean gate and the 
temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole business belonged to the vojxoipv- 
Xaveg, who were appointed to see that the ancient customs were observed. 

The Panathcnaic procession is represented on the frieze of the Partheijon. — See Sliiart, Aniiq. of Athens, cited P. IV. § 243. 1 

Visconti, Sculpture du Parthenon, cited P. IV. § 190. 4. — A small but h.TOdsoine view of the Acropolis and the Panathenaic proces 
Bio' is given in Boyd's Potter. 

On theftstivil. cf. Robinson, Arch. Grxc— Potter. — Land. Quart. Rev xiv, 517. — H. A Miiller, Panathenaica. 

Among the monuments of ancient art still in preservatioti are certain vases called Panathenaic 
Vnsts, as they are supposed from inscriptions on them to have b('en actually employed to contain 
the sacred oil bestowed upon victors in these games as a part of their prize. 

See/". 0. Brrnisled, on the Fana'henaic Vases j iii the Transact, of the tiny. Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. p. 102. Lond. lf-34. — De 
t^.aylus, Vasrs dont Ics ancien.s faisiitnt usage dans les festives, in the Man. Acad laser, xxiii. 342. 

§ 78. The gre^t public games of the Greeks were also a part of their relicjious 
customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were originally established 
in honor of the gods. They were always begun and ended with sacrifices. It 
also entered into their design, and was their effect, to render religion more 
attractive by association with sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact tho 
several portions of Greece, and to stimulate and publicly reward superior 
talents. — The exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore 
the common name nivta'^Xov. They were running, leaping, wrestling, throw 
ing the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing, which some put in the place 
of the contest with the javelin. 

See Burette, on these exercises, (la Lutte des anciens — Puiilat, Course, Pisque, &c.) in the Mem. de VAcad. dev Inscr. vol. iii. 
p. 222ss — G F. P/ii/i>)D, De Pentathlosive Quinquertio. Berl. 1S27. 8. 

§ 79. The race (5po/io$) was between fixed boundaries, the starting-place 
{a^£6<.<;, ^ox^li), and the goal or end (tjxoTtdj, tipfia), on a piece of ground 
measured off for the. purpose {av%6i, STfudcov), 125 paces in extent. The racers 
were sometimes clad in full armor {oTtT^itobpo/xot). — There were also chariot- 
races and horse-races. 

Those who only ran once over the stadium were called a-ra5wSp6noi ; those who ran 
over the space doubled {diaAog), that is, both to ihe goal and back, were called SiavXo. 
^pofjioi; those who ran over the space twelve times in going and returning, i. e. twenty- 
four stadia, or according to others only seven stadia (('''Ac^os), were termed So\ixo5poi^ot. 
The goal was sometimes called Kajxtrrfip ; because, in the JtauXof and the 66\ixo;, the 
racers turned round it. — The prize (('WAo ■, (ipa(izioj) was coinmonly merely a crown of 

olive, pine, or parsley. The lerm Ktvqres was applied to horses which performed in 

the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the per- 
former {dvaParris) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other. In the chariot- 
race, two, three, four, or more horses were employed to*drawthe chariot (apua) ; hence 
the terms Ivupoi, Tcdpnrxoi, Terpiiopoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the 
course twelve times {r> u)kKa^p6yL-)i). It was an object of einulation among the wealthy 
to send chariots tor the race to the public games of Greece. 

(Jcdoyn, Les Courses de Chevaux et de Chars dans les jeux Olympiques, in the Mem. Acad Inscr. viii. 314, 330 ; ix. 360. — 
Quatrim. de Quincy, Sur la Course armee et les oplitodronies, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 asse d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. 
p. 165 with figures. On the Olympic Staditim, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev vol. v. p. 277. 

§ 80. For the leap (a?t^a) also boundaries were marked, the place from which 
(jSatr^fy), and the place to which {Gxdfxfxa) it was made. This exercise was 
performed sometimes with the hands empty, but oftener with metallic weights 
in them, usually of an oval shape (aT^r^Jpf j), sometimes with weights attached 
to the head or the shoulders. 

The distance leaped over was called Kavibv. The point to which the performers were 
lo leap was marked by digging the earth; hence its name from a/cdffrw. The phrase 
lYj^Mv vnip ra iaKajxp.vja, applied to signify excess or extravagance, was taken from this 
oxercise. 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 179 

§ 81. Wrestlinff {rtd'h'^, xa-tajS^tjifLxri) was commonly performed 'n a covered 
portico {^vatb^), the combatants being naked, and mailing the most violent 
exertions to throw each other to the ground. When one had done this with his 
adversary three times (o -fpcalas), he received the prize. There were two modes 
of this exercise, one in the erect posture (op^oTtax^), the other in the lying pos- 
ture in which the parties contended rolling on the ground {avax'kivoTtdT.Yi and 
dxivhriGis or xv'kLGLi). — When wrestling was united with boxing, it was called 
Tickyxpattov or tla^^axi'Ov. 

After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they were 
matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls as 
there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two bails, and those who 
drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd number, he 
who drew the odd lot was called eips6po;, and required to contend with those who con- 
quered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger; 
hence aips SdKrvXov became proverbial to signify confess that you are conquered. 

In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was u proper for the 
competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancratium, both modes were prac- 
ticed by the combatants {jrayKpaTianTai or iramiaxoi). 

§ 82. The quoit or discus (Stoxcj, co^o^) was made of stone, brass, or iron, 
of a circular form, and was thrown by means of a thong (xaXciStov) passing 
through a hole in the centre. He who threw the farthest took the prize. 

1. The discus was about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some 
state that the Sia-Ko; was of stone, and the adXog of iron ; others that the former was 
carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the difference may have 
been wholly in their form or shape. — The exercise is said to have originated with the 
Lacedoemonians. 

2 u. The hurling the javelin (pi'^pis, di<6pTiais) was practiced either with the hand 
alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft. 

In Plate XVII. fig. Y, is seen a javelin with the thong {amentum) attachid to it. 

§ 83. Boxing (rivyfiri) was performed with clenched fists, around which they 
sometimes hoimd the cestus [lixd^), i. e. a thong or piece of hide loaded with 
iron or lead. The chief art in this game was to parry the blows of the antago- 
nist, which were usually aimed at the face. 

The co)nbatant was called IlvKTri;, from nv^, a Jist. The cestus, originally reaching 
no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbov/ and sometimes to the 
shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and attack. 1 he IjjiavTEs 
were of several kinds ; those termed /^sfAixat gave the softest blows; and the pvpjxriKeg 
gave the most severe. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often 
lost their lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows 
were called v-^oiria. 

Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public games of the 
Greeks contests in music, poetry, and rhetoric, of which mention is made in the Archa'ology of 
Literature (cf P. IV. $ 65, $ 66). 

§ 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were the Olympic, 
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by way of eminence Sacred 
gatnes (oywt'f? ifpot). 

The first and most distinguished were the Olympic^ named from the place 
Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. By some, Jupiter 
was considered as their founder; by others, an earlier Hercules belonging to 
the Idsean Dactyli; by ethers, Pelops; hy most, Hercules the hero, who was 
the first victor in all the exercises, except in wrestling. They were renewed 
by Iphitus, a contemporary of Lycurgus, about B. C. 888, and afterwards by 
Choroebus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were an object of special (iare to the 
people of Elis. Several inspectors {uxv'tai, /ja/36o'D;t:oO ^'^^ charge of the ex- 
ternal arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspector {d'kvtd^x'^i^)' 

1 u. Those who wished to appear as combatants were obliged to spend ten months 
at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing ihe games and various preparatory exercises unde" 
the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic games especially termeci 
''EiAa-jobiKai. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided 
by lot. The jirize was a crown or wreath of olive (/foreyoj).—- Among the Olympic 
victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated; the names of thirieeti oi-hers Pin 
dar has preserved to posterity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the 
conquerors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely g.1 a< 

15 



174 GRECIAN ANTIQUITiE':-. 

count of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from every par. 
of Greece, and from Asia, Airica, and Sicily. Originally I'eniales were not allowed to 
attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'KKarofji/Saioji/, an- 
swering partly to July, and continued five days, 'i hey gave rise to the custom of 
reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. Each Olympiad consisted of four 
years. The first Olympiad is generally considered in chronology as corresponding 
with the year 776 B. C. 

2. One judge at first presided over the games; afterwards two; subsequently there 
were twelve ; then eight, one froni each tribe of the Eleans. The pltice, where these 
assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (77poyu//!/ao-//ara) of the combatants, 
was called 'EWrivoSiKaToi/. They took the rnost solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes im- 
partially. Although women were strictly excluded from witnessing these games at 
first, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. 
Originally the contests all took place in one day ; but at length several days were de- 
voted to them, and sometimes a day to processions and sacrifices and to the banquets 
given to the victors. The Olympic games were celebrated under the Roman empe- 
rors ; but were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius. 

3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games 
exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the 
different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who 
thus constituted the great assembly {Ylavfiyvpig) of Greece. Olympia was in fact called 
■xayKoivos x'^po-, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery 
are also mentioned as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. 
They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, historians, 
and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. 

Ba'. croft's Ileeren, p. 129.— G. IVesVs niss. on the Olympic games, in his Iransl. of Pindar, cited P. y. § 60. 5. — Cf. SuZzer's Allg. 

Thcorie, close of article Pindar. — ThirlwaIVs Hist, of Greece. For more particular accounts of the games, Dissen, Ueber die 

Annrdnung der Olympischen Spiele ; in his Kleim Schriftert. — Krause, Olympia oder DarsTellung der grossen Olympischen Spiele. 
Wiein. 1S38. 8. 

§ 85. Tho Pyihinn games (iTij^ta) were celebrated upon the Crissaean plains, 
in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of 
Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and were a commemoration of 
his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself, 
or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originally they, were held at the beginning 
of every nintli year (fwastj^pc?), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning 
of every fifth year (ytfi'ras'fjypts). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era 
in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from the 
3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or prize the victors 
received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel. 

1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have been re- 
warded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called ni)0(«-6j i^opj, which 
was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it 
consisted of five or six distmct portions, which represented so many separate parts and 
steps in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the customary 
solemn dance, composed of five parts. 

2 ^i. All the exerc ses in use at the Olympic games were gradually introduced into 
the Pythian. The AmpJnUyons had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates 
M'ere required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the 
Pythjan odes of Pindar. The spot where these games were held was a plain between 
Delphi and Cii-rha, sacred to Apollo. 

3. The Pytliiaji games were sometimes called AixcpiKTVoviKo. afl.Xa, because they were under 
the care of the Amphictyons. The pafticiilar persons appointed to lake the oversis^ht of the 
paines were called 'E7r(/.(£X>77-a£ ; who also acted as judges. They were assisted, in keeping 
nrder, by the ixaariyoipopni. The Greek states sent, to attend tjiese games, persons termed 
Oewpdi and iivBaiardi. 

§ 86. The Nemean games (Ne^itfta or Nf^aca) derived their name from Ne- 
mea, a city in Argolis between Cleonae and Phlius, in the vicinity of which 
they were celebrated. They were held every third year (r'ptfrjyptzot) so as to 
fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to com- 
pute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges were selected from 
the neiohboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonaj, and were persons distin- 
guished particularly for -their love of justice. Their dress was black, because 
the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity (dywv iTtLtd^ioi) in honor 
of Opheltes, or Anchemorus ; although others state, that tney were instituted and 
ledii'ated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PuBLIC GAMES. 175 

the victor was a crown of parsley [nsT^ivov). Ten conquerors in the Nernean 
games are celebrated by Pindar. 

See Vilioison, Les jeux Neir.eans, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 29. 

§ 87. The Isthmian g^ames ("icf^uta) were so called from the place of their 
celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Peloponnesus 
with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, a son of Ino 
and Athamas, who under the name of Palsemon was received by Neptune into 
the number of sea gods. Others represent Theseus as the founder of the 
games, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the 
Corinthians, all the ether states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were ex- 
cluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. 'I'hey 
were held at the beginning of every third year {t^ifir^^ixoi)^ and were attended 
with the musical contests as well as those m all the athletic exercises. The 
prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a 
period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first 
selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his 
Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancra- 
tiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. 

In our Plate XVI. are seen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8 represents 
the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. 

Solon established by a law thiit every Athenian, who pained a victory at the Isthmian games, 
s'muld also receive from the public treasury (Plat. Sol '2I<) a reward of one hundred (Irachmse. — 
I'he triumphal odes, in which the praises of the victors were celebrated, were termed EpiniUia. 

See TVfaiSi'eu, in the Mem. Acwi. hucr. vol. v. p. 95, 214. — Dissert, in his edition of Pindar ; cf. P. V. § 60. — Krause, Die Fyiliien, 
_/ tnieen, und Is:hniien. Cf. § 8?. 2. • 

§ 83. On acco'Mit of the great estimation in which Athletics were held among 
he Greeks, and theu intimate connection with religion and the interests of the 
itate, the sahjeco duserves a few additional remarks. 

1 u. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as bodily ex- 
irci&es, purt^aeu with earnestness and zeal ; bui it was commonly used to sigiiily those 
riorc frrque.it and violent bodily exercises, which were so much practiced in Greece, 
ep:pecially at the games already descri^ ed, and which were viewed as an essential part 
of education, and constituted a great object of ihe Gymnastic system. Many oi ihose 
who had enjoyed fuU insiruction iherein, made these exercises the main business of 
their life. Such were called dd\riTai and d^wiffrai. '] he teacher of the sysiem or art 
was called yvfivaarhi and ^wrapY'??, superintendent of a ^"ardi, which was a covered gal- 
lery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the floor 
being made smooth and level. Alihough the Aihletae were not strictly in the service 
of the state, yet they received great htmor. Their whole mode of lite was conducted 
with reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submiiied to many rigid 
precepts. In most of the exercises they were naked; in casting the quoit and ijie jave- 
lin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, ihey ren- 
dered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered 
themselves with dust or sand, in order that they miirht take better hold of each other, 
and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface of 
the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 

2 u. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examiiiation 
and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges {ddXoOirai, ih.MvoBhai, 'Y.Wapo6iKai) 
were appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the 
prize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards oi the con- 
querors were the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of 
their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, siaiues, solemn pro- 
cessions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages. 

Fcr idditional remarks on this subject, see P. IV. § 63, ^64.— C F. A. Hichheinter, Versuch eines Systems (ter Erziehims; der 
Griechen, Dess. 1785. 2 vols. 8. a work very instructive on this topic and on Gn cian education generally — Cf. Jnh^t'i Trea'ise nc 
Gymnastics. Northampt. 1828. 8. — Anier. Qnart. Rev. vol. iii. p. \2o.— Burette. Uisloire des Athletes, in Ihe Hist, de I'Aiad da 
Inscr. vol. i. p. 211. — P. Faber, He Re Athlelica, &c. Lii^d 1595. 1 ; also in Gro7}ovius. vol. \\n.—H. Mernirialis, T)e Aiie Gym- 
nastica. Amst. 1672 4. — P. M. Paciaudius, De Alhletarum tcvfticrTrjau in Palaestra Griecoruni. Rom. 1756 4. — A H. Kraiuc 
Theasenes ; oder wissensch. Darstellung der Gymnaslik, Agonistik, und Fes'spiele der Hellenrn. Halle, 1835. 8. with plates 

^ 89. Dramatic representations or thenlrirul performdiicesi, among the Greeks, be- 
longed appropriately to religious festivals; and had iheir origin, in fact, in religious cere- 
rnonie:;, particularly in the rites connected wiih the worship of Bacchus at Athens; this 
circumstance is more fully noticed in the Archaeology and the History ol Greek liiera- 
turt ; see P. IV, § 66. P. V. *5^ 36, ^ 37, and 47. Some account of the structure of the 
Greek theatres is given under the head of Architecture; see P. IV. ^ 235. Bedde* 



176 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

what is said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added properly in thi4 
place, respecting the machinery and the performers. 

1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical contrivances. 
Among these were the following : ihe OsoXoye'ioi', a platform concealed by clouds and 
supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mrixavfi and the Tepawc, instruments employed 
to bring a god or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him 
into the skies ; the Aaopai, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air; Bpovreu 
and the KEpa^ti'ocrKOTrs'iov, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 

2. The number of actors {vnoKpirat) in the whole of a play was of course various ; buv 
no more trian three at once appeared on the stage {(TKqvff) in the part appropriated to 
speakers (\oynov). Although the author of the piece represented was sometimes obliged 
to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of low 
character and loose morals. — In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and 
the .sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed; among 
these were the brazen vessels {rjx^'ia) resembling bells, which were placed in different 
parts of the structure. — In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were con 
cealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. 
iEschylus (cf. P. V. '^ 39, 61) introduced the regular mask {Trpodcmsiov, persona) ; which, 
ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so 
prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, 
color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and 
condition ; no less than twenty-five classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius 
Pollux ; six for old men ; seven for yoaiig men ; three for male slaves ; five for female 
slaves; and four for free women. The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head 
and hair (called oymi) to heighten the stature of the actor ; and lor the same purpose, the 
tragic actor wore a very thick-soled boot {KoQopvo;, ^tPa^). Of comic masks forty-three 
varieties are specified ; nine for old men; ten for young men; seven for male .slaves; three 
for old women ; fourteen for young women. The comic mask for the oldest man was 
called TraTwTwj Trp'oroj. Besides all these there were masks appropriate to the satyric drama. 

Representations of several ancient masks may be seen in our Plate XLIX. cf. P. IV. \ 189. I. See Sc/degd, on the Drama, Lect. 

lii. — Mongez. sur !es masques des Anciens, in the Mem da Vhistilut, CI ass e d'//js?. c( LV(. .4?iC. vol. i. 256. vii. 85. — Mongez, 
(on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice), in llie Mem. dc Pliist., C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89. — See 
also § 238. 3. 

3. The Choir ixopos) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors; 
yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. The Chorus was maintained at 
vast expense ; one source of which was in the dresses and decorations, which were of 
the most splendid kind. See P. V. § 37, and the references there given. 

^ 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spec- 
tators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were 
built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In consequence of the 
contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which' a 
fee for admist^ion was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at least, at two oholi. But 
under the influence of Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper ma- 
gistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one who 
applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was 
termed QewpiKh xp^'iy^oLTa, and the magistrate, Ta/i.'a? rwi/ OecjpiKfov, The number of specta- 
tors was often very great (cf P. IV. § 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description 
of their crowding to the theatre. 

Travels nf Auacharsis (as cited P. V. § 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also rh Ixx. — Barthelemy, Nombre des pieces qu'on representoient en 
un jour a Afhenes, in the Mem. Mad. Insa: xxxix. 172. -Ou Greek theatrical Derforniances, cf. V. V. §§ 36-47. — Land. Quart 
Rev. xii. 119.-/. Proud fit, in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Series, p. 'liQ.—Bdttiger, as cited F. V. ^ 8b. 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 91. After M?hat has been already said (§§ 33, ss.) of the orig'inal circiinn- 
stancps and constitution of the Greek states, v^^e ma}' confine ourselves now to 
their characteristics and peculiarities in later limes. The account of the various 
chancres of their constitntion and the consequences thereof belongs to history 
rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, v^^ill treat chiefly of the 
civil reorulations of the most flourishing- republic, Athens, without overlooking 
those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were dis- 
tinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they had also 
many points of resemblance. 

§ 9'2. The early political' chancres at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39). 
After the king's, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble 
families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth and last (1068 B. C), the 
'Thief magistrates were the Archons. When these became despotic. Dracc 



p. III. CTVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 177 

(624 B. C) infoduced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by 
their severity. Recou-se was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished 
all the laws of Draco, e>cept the one respectintr murder. Solon changed the 
form of government in many points, diminished very much the authority and 
power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries, 
and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing into a mixed and mo- 
derate democracy. 

On tlie Civil Affairs of the Athenians, cf. G. Postellvs. He Republica Aiheniensivsm. I/);d. Bat. 1635. 4. — C. P. Lcvesqve, sur la 
Constitution d'Atbenes, in Mein dc VInstitut, C I asse des Sdettces Mot. tl Pol. vol. iv. — K. F Ffer-,-,uinn, Lehrbiich der Griecli- 
ischen StaatsalterthUmer. In English traiisl eniillert, Political Antiquities of Gre-ce. Oxf. IS36. ?. An iviiprovci edition of l!ie 
original publ. in \?36.— JVac/ismuth. as cited § 13.—^. D. HUllmann, Slaatsrecht d. Alterlhuu.s. Coin. Ib20 8. 

§ 93. Originally the people had been divided into four tribes {^v'Ka.'J)^ and 
also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number of boroughs 
or wards {hr.jxot). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curias {fpoat- 
pJac, t^v-/;) according to their consanguinity, and each of the curls into families 
{yivrj, rptaxaSf j). But Solon divided the citizens according to their wealth 
into four classes ; 1. Usptaxofyoo/xeBi, /j-vol, those who gathered from their f.elds 
in moist and dry crops, at least 500 ^iht^voi, ; "2. 'irtrtstj, those whose grounds 
yielded 300 /nsbifivoL, and who were able to maintain a war-horse {trCTtGc tto?..-- 
IJLLntrjpLoi); 3. Ziv/Ltac, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) yABti-Lvo:, 
and who owned the space of one acre or ^f ry^? ? 4. ©-/^rfj, those who had any 
less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the peoplr; 
(§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes shared in the burdens and 
expenses of the state, and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from 
•Ihein alone the senate {f^ovT'-rj, § 107) was chosen, which at that time consislf<i 
of 400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus (§108), as lio 
gave it jurisdiction of the most important criminal cases. 

§ 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about thirty -four years. 
Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus b<-came sole master of the 
state, and notwithstanding all opposition, continued such unlii his death, 528 
B. C His two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succpeded him. These were 
soon stripped of their power; Hipparehus being slain i)y Harm.odius, who vv;is 
offended on account of his sister (Thiic. vi, 544) and was aided by his friend 
Aristogiton; and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. After 
this, the constitution received a new form under tlie influence of Clisthenes. 

The number of the tribes {^v'kai) was now increased to ten. From each of 
these, fifty senators {3ov%tvtai) were yearly elected, so that the Senate consisted 
of 500. After this the power of the people was still more increased. Aristides 
eflTected the abolition of the law of Solon, which excluded from offices the low- 
est of the four classes of citizens. Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes 
deprived the Areopagus of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many 
important changes in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower 
classes, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, and 
the way was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed. 

§ 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken by Ly- 
sander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the thirty tyrants, 
wlio were, how^ever, deprived of their authority after three years, by Thrasy- 
bulus, and banished. In their stead, d-ecemviri (6fxa6ov;^ot) were instituted, 
who likewise abused their power, and were exiled, afer the former democracy 
was restored. This form was retained until the death of Alexander the Great, 
when it was overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain 
number of nobles or chiefs. After the d^alh of Antipater, Cassander committed 
the republic to a lieutenant; and under Demetrius Poiiorcetes, it enjoyed again 
freedom and popular power. With some changes, this state of things con- 
tinued until the time of Sylla, who in the Mithridatic war conquered Athens 
and subjected her to the Romans. The final destruction of the city happened 
towards the end of the fourth century by the hands of Alaric, king of the 
Westgoths. 

•5* 96 t. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. Its circuit was? 
■•bout one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. Its topography is given more parlicularlv 



178 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

in the Epitome of Classical Geography (cf. P. I. §§ 104-116); here we shall only name 
some of the principal buildings and works. One part ot it was the citadel, which lay 
upon a steep rock ; this at first consiituied the whole city under the name of Cecropiu 
and was atterwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the Acropo 
lis were the ilpmvXata, PropylcBu, the JlapSsi/.j/, or temple of Minerva with the laaious 
statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the joint temple of Nepiune Ereciheus and IVli- 
nerva Polias. In the other portion (which was called the lower city), the temples of 
Vulcan, Venus Urania, I'heseus, Jupiter Olympius,andihe Pantheon sacred to all the 
gods, were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, the Pee- 
die (cf P. IV. § 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with the most magnificent 
paintings and ornaments. I'he Odeum, built by Pericles, was devoted to musical and 
literary exercises (cf. P. IV, "5» 235. 3). 'I'he name of Ceramicus was given to tv^o 
extensive spaces, one within and the other without the city, the former enriched with 
L-eauriful edifices, the latter used as a burial ground. '1 here were several market 
places {■iyopal), with different names according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia 
also, and the Baths, the S'adium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cyno- 
£!arges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the remarkable and interesting 
works which adorned the city of Athens. '1 he three harbors, Pira2us, Munychia, 
and Phalerum, should likewise be mentioned. 

For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XXI. fig. 1 ; in the same Plate, fig 2, is the temple of 
(he WmuIs ; fiii. 3, the lenipleof 'I'heseus.— A view of the Parthenon in its ruins as given by Hob- 
tj'Vuse, is seen in lUe Plateon page 432. — For ruins of the temple of Mirif-rva connected with that 
o.*" Weptune Erectheus, see the Plate on page 30. — For a plan of Athens, see Plate I. 

§ 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were either 
■^oT'.itac, free citizens ,■ fii-tocxoi^ free conimuners, resident, aliens or sojourners ; 
or toiikoi, slaves. The first class was the most respectable; the last, the most 
numerous. The number of resident foreigners, however, was not insignificant. 
']'he right of citizenship was, in the flourishing limes of the republic, a high 
privilege, which was conferred only upon men of honorable descent and dis- 
tinguished merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agree.nenl of 
six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were those whose 
parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose parents was born there; 
and those of the latter class held a lower rank, and privileges in some respects 
less than the former. 

1 a. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided into four tribes (cf. % 93) as follows ; 
I. K£K-f)o-ij, from his own nfime ; 2. 'Aurdxflw./; 3. 'Axrafa; 4. napaXTa. To each of these 
tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards {trjuo), of which there were at 
length 174 in Attica, and which diflfered Irom each other in various points of manners 
and customs. The names of the tribes were afterwards changed, and the num'^er in 
creased to ten (cf. ^ 94), finally to twelve. 

On the Afjuot of Attica, see IV. M. Leake., in ttie Traiisactioiis uf the Riryal Society of Literature ; a full account, with a ji,uod 
iwap. — A complete list of them is given in JVachsniuth's Histiirical Antiquities. 

2 u. The number of citizens, jroXtVat, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040; 
and in the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a census taken by his direction, 
B. C. 309. the nimiber was 21,000. 

3. From the census of Detneirius, the whole population of Attica, including aliens 
(cf ^ 99), women, children, and slaves (cf *^ 99), has been estimated at 500,000. 

On the population of Attica, see SocWs Public F.eonomy of Athens. — Cliiitoji's Fasti, Appendix. — .9mer. Quart. Register, on 
Populnusness of Ancient Nations vol. ix. p. 143. — Sainte Croix. Sur la population ile I'Attique, in the Mem. Mead. Ima: vol. xlviii. 
p 147. — And Letronne, in ihe Mem. deVInstitut, Classe d'Hisl. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 165. 

§ 98. The fiitoLxoi were those foreigners, or persons not natives of Attica, 
who became residents in the city or territory. They took no part in the govern- 
ment, being admitted neither to the assemblies of *,he people nor to public 
offices, hut were subject to all the laws and usages of the land. They were 
obliged to select from the free citizens a patron or guardian (Ttpoorarj/?), in 
whose name they could manage business and maintain actions in the civil 
courts, and to whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the 
state were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (/xetoixiov) 
was exacted ; ten or twelve drachms for each man; and six for each woman 
without sons; mothers with sons that paid being free from the tax. Some- 
times exemption from taxation (ati'kna) was conferred upon individuals as a 
leward for meritorious services. Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the 
«lass of foreign residents. 

The term ?£i'0( wa= applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country for a short 
'uie only, as distinguished from the loreign residents, although it was sometimes applied 



PLATE XXI 




179 



180 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

to the latter ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who wt.e mutually pledged 
by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality. 

If a metic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold for a slave 
Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means of paying it; bu: 
was redeemed by Demetrius. 

Among the services required of the residents was the carrying of a vessel with water, 
i:'ipial)Of)ia, which the married alien women were obliged to perform to (he married 
females of Athens in the grand Panathenaic procession ; the daughters of aliens were 
obliged on the same occasion to render to the Athenian maidens the service of carrying 
parasols {axia'-nipopia). See ^ 77. 6. 

Cf. HainU Croix, Sur les Metceques, &c. in the Mem. de VMad.des laser, vol. Xlviii. p. 176. 

§ 99. The slaves (BovT^oi) were of different sorts, those belonging to the pub- 
lic [6ov%ob byj/uLoatoi), and those belonging to private citizens (oLxitai,). The 
latter were completel}' in the power of the master, and were often treated with 
great severity. Yet they sometimes purchased freedom by their own earnings, 
or received it by gift as a reward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at 
liberty, when they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen 
very seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed 
SwXot. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and miserable 
as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, than in other states 
of Greece, especially in Lacedaemon, The slaves of Attica amounted to 
400,000 in the time of Demetrius. 

The term di/clr??? signifies one living in the same house with any one ; biKov6\xo<;, signi- 
fies one who oversees oiie' s affairs, and is sometimes applied to designate a particulai 
slave, since slaves were sometimes intrusted with the office of steward ; vnrjptrr]^, signi' 
fying primarily a rower, and secondarily an attendant, is also sometimes applied to 
slaves. Xen. Mem. ii. 10. 

At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress 
or the cut of their hair; their coats must be with one sleeve only {eTspoiAimxa^oi) and the 
hair cut in the servile form (S-pi^ dvSpaTro6co6r)i). They could not properly bear the names 
of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some foreign or low name. I'hey were 
allowed to bear arms only in extreme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ; 
for common offences thty were whipped (piaaTiyiaM) ; for theft or running away they 
were bound to a wheel and beaten (liri rpoxov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to 
grind in the mills (ftvAwvc?); sometimes they received, upon their forehea-d or some 
other part, the brand with hot iron {cTiypia). In giving testimony in court they were 
also subject to torture {Pdaavog). — Yet at Athens the slaves could bring civil actions 
against their masters and others for violation of chastity and for unlawful severity 
'v/3peo); cUri and diKia; SiKr;). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple 

oi Theseus, from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. Slaves carried on 

the whole business of the Athenians; even the poorer citizens depended on them. 
There was a sale of slaves on the first day of every month by merchants {avlpam^oKd- 
'TriXoi) ; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's stone 
(Trparhp XitV;). The price varied according to their abilities. Many were skillful in the 
r;legant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines. 

See Reitemeier, Geschichte und Zustand der Sclaverey, &c. (History of Slavery and Villanaee in Greece.) Berl. 1789. — C( 
itivenietis. vi (cf. P. V. § \23).— Bernhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. — Bill. Repos. and Quart. Observer, No. xvii. p. I3S. 

§ 100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the mode of 
their appointment to office, into three classes, the ;i;?tpo-rov9yT'ot, the xXrjpc^'foiy 
and the aiptifoi. The first named were chosen by the whole people raising the 
hand ; the second were appointed by lot by the Thesmothetae in the temple of 
Theseus ; and the last were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the 
tribes and the districts, from among their own number. — The magistrates were 
required, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of their admi- 
nistration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten accountants (xoyto-i'ai)) and 
ten directors or judges (cr^vot, called also s^staa'tai). 

In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method was lc 
,>ut the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (nii^aKta), into an urn with 
black and white beans {Kva/xoi); and those whose tablets were drawn out with white 
beans were elected. ' 

On the Athenian magistrates, cf. Blcnchand, jn the Metn de VAcad. dts Inscr. vii. 51. — Cf. Julius Pollux, Onnniasticon. 

§ 101. The most important magistrates were the Jrchnns (ap;i;oi/f8j). There 
'•■*»re usually nine Archons, chosen by lot(x?v>;pwr6r), but subjected to an exa 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. REVENUES. 181 

ruination as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath 
and enter their office. 

1. The examinations of the Archons was two fold ; one in the senate called 'Avd. 
xptfTii, the oiher in the forum, called ^oxiyLa^ia, before the Heliasta: (''yXtaa-rat '§ 110). 
.Among the points of examination were the following: whether their ancestors for three 
generations harl been Athenian citizens; wliether they had a competent estate; ari 
whethei thev were free from bodily defects {'i<psks~iq). 

2 u. The first of the nine in rank was sxyieA' Archon by way of eminence, h "Apx'^v; 
sometimes ''Ap\wy iTnovi^no^, because the year was named from him. He attended to the 
domestic aflliirs of citizens, decided differences which arose between relatives, had the 
care of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and 
solemnities, and also of theatres. — The second was called King, or archon king, 
apx'ov iSatjiXeii. To him were assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, 
which were originally performed by kings exclusively; he was. in general, overseer of 
rehgious aff^airs. — The third, named Polemarch, -oMuapxo;. attended to the domestic af- 
fairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same duties in reference to them, 
which the first archon did for the ciiizens. In the time of the Persian war, he had an 
important share in managing military affairs. — The six remaining archons were called 
Thesmothetcs {ytuixoBirai), and were chiefly occupied with legislative aflTairs ; they also 
took cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction. 

3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called TrapeSpoi.^ 
assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to the same 
examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in the same way an 
account {ludvi/ri) of their office. 

§ 102. Another magistracy at Athens was that of the Eleven, U "Evh^xa^ ten 
of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, and the other was their 
secretary (ypau^uarfv?). They were properly overseers of the prisons, and di- 
rected in the execution of capital punishments. In later times they were also 
(.ailed voixo^v7.ax£^. — These were different from the Phylarchi (qiv^apzoi-)^ who 
were originally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards command- 
ers in war. The Demarchi (67^aap;i:ot) performed similar duties in relation to 
the districts {brixoi). — The Ar^iapxot had the care of the public reorister (Xfv- 
xwjua), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and collected fines of those not 
present. They were six in number; but were aided by the Tolorat, who were 
a sort of bailiflTs or deputy sheriffs, to the amount of 1000. — The 'Soi.io^traL 
were also 1000 in number, and were charged with the examination of past 
laws to see if any were injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of 
police. 

Besides the magistrates above named, there were many others connected with the 
treasury, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of jusiice ; the most 
important of them will be noticed in connection with those topics. There were also 
various other public functionaries, who were not, strictly speaking, magistrates, but 
ought perhaps some of them to be named here. — The 'Pfiropt;, orator<i, were ten in 
number, appointed by lot to plead public cau.ses in the senate and assembly; they were 
sometimes called c^ivfiyofoi, and were a different body from the crvviiKoi, who were ap- 
pointed by the people. — The YlpiatizXi, amhassadors. were chosen usually by the peo- 
ple, sometimes by the senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full power; 
they were called WpzalSztq avroKparop:; ; generally their power was limited (cf <) 143). 
They were usually attended by heralds {KnpvK-i) ; this name however was sometimes 
given to the persons sent on an embassy. — VV^e may also mention the notaries, yptiji^ia- 
ra?; besides the great number employed by the various magistrates, there were //iret pub- 
licly chosen; one by the assembly of the people, to recite before them; and two by 
the senate, one to keep the laws, and the other the records in general, 'fhe office was 
not at Athens very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educated slaves, called 
Arjuhioi (cf <5> 99). • 

§ 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts : 1. Ttx?;, rents from public 
domains and other public property, and duties paid on articles of commerce and 
on certain pursuits and persons; 2. <]^6pot, tributes, or annual payments exacted 
from allied or subjected cities and states; 3. Tt,a^^uara, Jines, which all went tc 
the public treasury, except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and 
one fifteenth appropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were patrons 
of the city ; 4. AfLtovpytai tyxyx^toL, periodical litunries, or services, m. which in- 
dividuals were required, for a time, to perform certain duties or maintain certain 
public establishments at their own expense. — Bes'^-^s the ordinary, the nece.-- 



182 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cities of tlie state sometimes required an extraordinary revenue; und then 
special taxes (ftatjjopai-) laid upon citizens and residents formed an important 
resource. 

Under the rekn, or rents, we may include the income from the mines ; the most im- 
portant of which were the silver mines of Laurion ; the ore from these was termed 
ipyuprn? ; they were regarded as a grand source of wealth to Athens. 

See Bbckh, cm the Mines of Laurion, in his Public Economy. 

Under the ^opoi or tributes, we may include the duty of ten per centum {kmr,], 6£k<i. 
revTripiou) imposed on vessels passing from or into the Euxine ; which was exacted at 
Chrysopolis (cf. P. I. <i* 160), which the Athenians fortified for the purpose. 

Under Ti/zrijuara or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (Trpurai/tra), which were 
demanded of both parties before beginning a suit m court; these deposits were large 
in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. I'o the same head must be 
referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (crujuo-n-para). 

Under the Iiiturgies (XeiTovpyLai) were included chiefly three, xopiyla, yvp-vaaiapxia, diud 
eaTiams. Those, who rendered the first named service, ixopnyoi,) were required to pay 
the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the public festivals and theatrical exhi- 
bitions (cf. '^^ 89. 3). Those to whom the second was assigned were obliged to furnish 
the oil and the various necessaries for the wrestlers and other combatants in the public 
games. In the third service mentioned, certain persons (landTopei tw (/xiXwy) provided 
entertainment or banquets, on the public festivals, for a whole tribe. — These services 
were always assigned to the most weal hy citizens. In the time of Demosthenes there 
was the following system : each of the ten tribes pointed out 120 of the wealthiest citi- 
zens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were divided into two portions according 
to their wealth, the rrdw TiXova'.oi and the nm^ nXomioi ; these two parts were each formed 
into ten classes or companies, called a\)p.popiii ; from the ten avpp.opiai of the more 
wealthy, 300 of the wealthiest men were selected, who were required to furnish the 
repubhc with the necessary supplies of mon^^y and with the rest of the 1200 to perform all 
extraordinary duties in rotation. If any one uf the 300 could name a person more wealthy 
than himself, he was excused. The residents {phoiKoi) sometimes performed these 
services. — Besides the ordinary XeiTovpyiai above mentioned, there were some extraordi- 
nary ; particularly two in a time of war, rpirjpapx'ia and £ia(j)opd. The rpcfipapxoi were 
obliged to provide necessaries for the fleet and building of ships. The ■ tio-^epoj/Tf:? were 

required to contribute money according to their ability for different purposes. ^The 

manner in which they performed .such of these services as were assigned to them, and 
the degree of expense and splendor to which they went, became sometimes a subject 
of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians. 

On the whole subject of the Athenian revenues and expenditures, see Mug. Bochh^s Staatshaushaltung der Athener. Mit 21 'In 
ichriften. lierl. 1817. 2 vols. 8. Eng. Transl. Public Economy of Athens. Lond, 1828.— Cf. Bancroft's Heeren, ch. viii —Mit 
'ord, ch xxi. sect. 1. — Xenophon, On the Revenues of Attica (cf. P. V. § 186. 2). 

On the Trierarchy, BoMth Urkunden ilber das Seevvesen des Attischen Staates. Berl. 1840. 

§ 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged to the peo- 
ple, and their administration and management to the senate. But a particular 
officer was at the head of the treasury, called tafxia^ tTJ? xoivriq Ttpocohov, be- 
cause he had charge of the public revenue, and also ta/xia^ tvj^ Stotjc^crftoj, as 
having charge likewise of the public expenditures. He was chosen by the 
people (xstpotovia) for four years. 

1 u. There were many subordinate officers in the department of finance. One class 
consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous ar- 
rangements. To this class belonged the TrwA^rai, ten in number, one from each tribe, 
having the care of whatever the state sold or leased ; the npaKropeg, who received all 
fines imposed ; the cTnypMjjsTg, who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the ^taypafetg, 
who enrolled the names of families and individuals, and assessed to them their part in 
raising an extraordinary revenue ; the eKXoyelg, who collected the taxes, duties, rents, 
&c. Te\Mvai were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public 
lands or other pub^lic property, and paid the rent to the officers. — A second class con- 
sisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed them for 
public uses. Of this class were the dnoSeKrai, ten in number, chosen by lot ; and the 
ran'Mi rwy lepcou xprjf^'irco^, who had the care of the treasures in the temples {§ 28). — Such 
ofiicers as were employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts of the de- 
partment may be considered as a third class, including the ypappareig, derhs, and iirn. 
ypdixpareTg, under -clerks, and the dvrtypafeTs , checking-clerks or auditors. Among the larter 
may be named particularly ]he 'dvnypa^pevg rn? StotKmeco;. controller of the expenditure. 

2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. 
The puhhc edifices and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be 
preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended many thousands of 
lalents upon works of architecture in Athens.— -—The festivals were another source 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. AMPHIC'1-YONS. 18.1 

of expense ; when we consider their number, and think of the cost ot" the sacrificial 
victims and offerings, the banquets, ihe processions {-ojirral), the theatrical, musical, and 
^ymnnstic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that 
immense sums must have been expended in maintaining them. — Much was expended 
also in distribuiions or donations to the populace {'i agonal, SiaSdasii); the most important 
expenditure in this way was by the (5iw/io,\ia, or distribution of the oboli to each pocr 
citizen as theoric money {ietopiKu, cf. '?> 90). — Meatis of support for poor and disabled 
citizens [icivaroi), and also for children whose fathers had tallen in battle, were likewise 
furnished from the public treasury, and formed* another item of expense. — In addition 
*o these, we must mention the expenses of the governmenty including the salaries ot all 
the various magistrates and ofiicers of different grades, and the wages of the senators 
(ju(cr5df 0o"\£"TLKd;), and of those who attended the assembly (/i-o-Qdj iKKXriJia-TiKo^). — The 
support of the ar?ni/ and ?iavy lequired also large sums of money even in time of peace. 
In time of \\ar, the expenses, not only of this class, but of many others also, must 

have been greatly increased It may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate 

of the amount of these various expenditures, 'ihe comparative value of the precious 
metals in ancient and modern times must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least, 
three times as valuable then as now. 

§ 105. Amoncr the public asseniiblies of the Greeks, which took into consi- 
deration the affairs of the whole state, the council of Ihe Amfhictyons (y^vvohoe, 
A/xqiLxtvovuiv, Ap^txrvovLa) is especially worthy of notice. According to com- 
mon opinion, it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion; accord- 
ing- to somp, by Acrisius, king of Argos. 'I'he twelve people or states united in 
this council (to rwv 'Exxy'vo^v awt^inov) used to meet by their delegates, two 
from each city ordinarily, at Thernaopylae; from this circumstance the dele- 
gates were called Ilv^vayopat, and the council itself nuT^ai-a. Sometimes they 
jnet at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring and autumn, 
unless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of the council was to 
adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, and the delegates had 
full power to make salutary changes and regulations. Some very important 
disputes, as e. g. between the Plataeans and Laceilsemonians, and between the 
Thebans and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued 
to some time in the first century after Christ. 

Some writers have taken a different view of the origin and design of this council. 
They assert that the Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about 
ox near Delphi, or some other place ; ajulnK-vox^ being nearly equivalent to daibiKTiojeg; 
and that the assembly was originally held simply tor the purpose of mutual gratifica- 
tion and religious festivity, having no precisely definite common object, and being dif- 
ferent from a confederation for mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations. 

This is Ihe view nf Hmmarin. in his Lehrbuch, cited ^ 92. — Similar is 'hat of Sain te Croix, Des Anciens Gnuverneniens Feder* 
tifs. Par. 1799. — The poli'ical chamcler and design of II e council is maintairifd hy F IV Tillmann, Ufber den Bund der Amph'C- 
Ivoneii. BfH ISI2. 8 -^C''. also Mitford, Hisl. nf Greece, ch. iii. sect. 3. — Thirlwall. His', of Greece, c. x. xliii. — fjc ralois, ,Sui 
les Ami hic!yons, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. &c. vol. \ii p. 191 • and v. p. 405. — T. Leland, Discourse pref to his Life oj 
Philip of MaCfdt'Ti. 

§ 106. Assemblies nf the people {sxx'ky^niai) were very frequent at Athens, and 
had an iinportant influence. In these the acts of the senate were canvassed, 
laws were proposed and approved or rejected, magistrates appointed, war de- 
clared, and the like. The place where they met was either the market-place 
(dyopa), or a broad space near the mountain called the Fnyx (EI^v^), or the 
theatre of Bacchus. The ordinary assemblies (fxxXriaiai xv^iai) were held 
monthly on established days; the extraordinary (izxXjyotaf. ffvyz^j^rot) were 
called on pressing and important emergencies. 

1 u. These meetings were managed and conducted by the rip"ra;'f(f, the llpoe^poi, ana 
the 'E?r((Tr.ir/7j. Before eiitering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a" young pig, was 
offered. Then the herald ordered silence, offered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on 
the direction of the Ylp6e-poi, the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and those 
above fifty years of age were first invited to speak ; at'ter which anv one above thirty, 
of fair character had the liberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been 
discussed in the senate, whose decision upon it {-rrpoPovXei'na, ipfi<piana nl; /?o"Xil,) received 
its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called emphatically a 
decree, ipfi'p-Tiia. Often, however, a decision of the senate without the contirmation of 
the assembly was in force for a year; at least it was so in those cases in which, in 
order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity. 

2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (xeipoToina), and sometimes by a 
mode of balloting in which beans (/a'-a^oi) and stones (i/'#oO were cast into vessels pre 



184 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



pared for the j jrpose (KaSoi). — When the business was completed, the UpvTavEii dismisseil 
the assembly. 

See G. F. Schbmann, De Comitiis Atheniensium, lib. iii. Gryphisw. 1819. S.—R. Whistou, On the Atheniaii Assemblies, in 
Smi^A's Diet, of Antiq. p. 361. — Aristofhanes, ii his E/c/cATjo-ta^oiio-ai. 

§ 107. The senate or higher council (37 ai^co ^ov'kri) consisted, according to the 
arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500; and was therefore styled the senate or 
council of the 500 (y? ^ov'kri t<Zv Ttsvtaxoatoiv). In earlier times it consisted of 
400, and in later of 600 members. 

1 u. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready 
division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these divisions, containinjj 50 
members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation 
decided by lot : and the members of the division having this charge at any one period 
was called Upvrdi^eig for the time, and the period itselt was called Ilpvrai^sia. Ihe 50 
UpvTaveis were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to 
their business in rotation, each for a period of 7 days, and the members were called 
Upoe^poi for that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding 
officers. From the Up6c6poi was elected the 'ETrto-rarr;?, who was at their head, and of 
course at the head of the senate, but held the place only tor a single day. — It was the 
business of the Ilpyravsig to assemble the senate, and propose the subjects of delibera- 
tion. They also conducted the meetings of the people, in which however they only 
presided in connection with nine YlpoeSpoi, who were chosen out of the other divisions 
of the senate and had an 'EniaTarm at their head. The npvrdvsii had a common hall, 
where they passed most of their time daily, called the Frylaneum {UpuTavzTo^), near the 
senate-house (BooX^roi/, and Bo jXcurnpio;^). 

2m. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which the 
votes were taken. I'hey received a drachma {c^paxptri) per day for every day's attend- 
ance. The power of the senate was very great. 

3, The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days consi- 
dered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was called the sena- 
torial oath {tov PovXevTiKoi' bprnv) to do nothing contrary to the laws In voting, they 
cast each a black or white bean into the box or urn [Kd6og, KaYiaKos) prepared for the 
purpose ; if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution 
was affirmed ; otherwise rejected. 

§ 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than i\\e Areopa- 
q;us at Athens. Its name, 'ApstoTtayoj, signifies Hill of Mars, and was derived 
from the circumstance,- that the court was held on a hill so called, near the cita- 
del. Others derive the name from the tradition, that the god Mars was the first 
criminal tried before this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain, 
but was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but en- 
larged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body ('ApftoTtoytrat) 
were originally the most upright and judicious citizens of every condition, but 
after the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Ar(;hons. 
Their olUce was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination, 
poisoning, arson, and oflTences against religion, came before this court, which 
inflicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on the last 
three days of each month : but afterwards they were more frequent, and at last 
daily ; they were always in the open air, and at night. 

1 u. The sitting was opened whh a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the 
accused took an oath with direful imprecations. Then, either personally or by attor- 
neys, they urged their cause ; but no ornaments of rhetoric, no attempts to move the 
passions, were ever allowed. After this the judges gave their decision by means of 
white or black stones. As the court always sat in the dark, the white pebbles were 
distinguished by holes bored in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive 
the white stones, which were votes to acquit the detendant, and one of brass to re- 
ceive the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen- 
tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and purity of this 
tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the general co-rruption 
of morals. 

2. In their oath ((^(co/ioo-ia) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the Furies {asfval ^real). 
In tne trial they were placed upon what were called the silver clones {'ipyvpoH^), the 
Ttlantiff on that of Injury (vPpig), and the defendant on that of Impudence {avaihia), or 
of Innocence (dvairia). — I'lie -brazen urn stood in front of the other, and was called 5 
hirouaOsv; also hKvpio^, because votes cast into it declared the accusation valid ; and 
' ^Savdrov, as it decreed death. The wooden was termed hTrlmo, b uK'-pog, or 6 eXio<i. 

Resf/ectiDg the pebbles used in decisions, of. Anthonys Note to Potter, p. 71. On the Areopaf is and the other courts of Ath 



p. Til. CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN COURTS. 185 

see ^. IV. fftffter, Die Athenaische Gerichlsverfassung. Cnln, 1822 S —M. H. E. Meir, Der Atlische Process. Vier BQcher. 
Halle, 1824. 8 — Abbi ( anaye. 1,'Areopagus, in the Mem. ^cad. Inscr. vii 174. 

§ 109. The 'E^irat were jIso persons of distinguished merit, who constituted 
thf court called 'ETtt Ila7.%ahiGi from the statue of Minerva (said by some to 
have been brought from Troy) in the temple, where it was held. Its origin is 
ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he 
uid not fiist institute it, certainly modified it anew. The judges were ffly-one, 
selected from noble families, five from each- tribe, and one appointed by lot, all 
over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court; but referred 
to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leaving to the 'E^itcxi juris- 
iiction only over homicide, injuries followed by death, and the like. 

There were three other less important courts belonging to the class which had 
cognizance of actions concerning blood (sTti, tCjv q>ovixujv) .—The court 'Ertc 
Afy^tvtQ was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of 
cases where the defendants confessed the fact but pleaded some justification. — 
The court 'Ev IIpDravftcj was held at the Prytaneum (cf. § 107) and investi- 
gated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had 
escaped. — The court 'Ei/ ^piarroi was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, 
and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — 
In all these courts the 'Ecpatai, presided and pronounced the sentence. 

The magistrates called (l)v\o6aai'\ETg are said to have had soinp dnty in the court ev UpvTavsiM ; 
HspFcially in the cases termed at rojv dipvxojv Sikui, in which the insiruments of homicide were 
sultjected to trial. In the earliest times there were four of these magistrates; one perhaps from 
each of the four tribes. 

. § 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having 
jurisdiction only in civil cases (Jrii tMv 8rji.ioti.xujv), of which there were six. 
The most important was the 'H?i.tat,a. Its name was either from a^^La, multi- 
tude, on account of the throng attending it, or from rj'kios, sun, on account of its 
'leing held in the open air. The number of its judges {r'Ktarstao dL.xaatai) was 
ot always the same ; the whole nun) her amounted to 6000, who were chosen foi 
ine year by lot; out of these were taken the number requisite in each particular 
rial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000 
•■ere assembled ; the more usual number was 200 or 500. It was the province 
of the ^eij^o^itai (§ 101) to introduce the action into court [iiadyBcv bixrjv f'tj 
rb ^Lxaatripiov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate 
and decide the case. 

1 u. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction {Tvaiaypap) or request a dela> 
{'mjjnjia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parlies deposited 
a sum of money as security (rrp'^ra ■eta), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In 
doing this they were Hmiled to a definite time, measured by a water-clock {xXs-^^vSpa). 
The decision was given in the same way as in ihe Areopagus (§ 108); and the de- 
fendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to the "ZvkKa (\> 102), and in 
case of fine, to the Ylp'Krop-g or 'F.K^oyeT; {^ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was 
cast into prison ; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- 
ment also, fell upon his son. 

2. The bailiff'or deputy employed to summon {-rrpoaKaKt'KyBa )the defendant before the 
Thesmothetas, or witne-ses before the court, was termed K-Af^Twp ; sometimes one or 
two of the witnesses whose names were indorsed upon the decbiration (^'^f•,■, cxX/j/^a), 
together wiih the plaintitT, were the summoners [KXrirnpsi). 'i'he oath oi the plaintiff 
before the opening of the trial was called -pocouoj'.u ; that of the defendant, avT-M/zoo-iu ; 
a name for both was (5(w//oo-u?. Door-keepers (^KiyKXlSe;) were appcinted by a magistrate 
to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security niouey was, as has been 
hinted (§ 103). in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it 
was a drachm, and called TrapaT-ao-i? ; the deposit made by orie who sued for goods 
confiscated by the state, or for inheritances ol a rertain kind, was termed TrapaKaTafhM). 
If the plaintiflT (^lOKw ■) failed of proving the indictment (airui) against the defendant 
{'^jtvy'jyv), he paid a fine called iiroj3z\iii. Wiile the action (^(wfii) was proceeding or '"as 
in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (jKKsTaOao in on*> 
of the most pubUc places of the niy. 'I'he witnesses {jxaprvpEi) wen; all put under a 
solemn oath, which they took together at the aliar erected in the court-room. Their 
testimony was called for by the idvocates {n 'vi'r,r>poi) as they wanted it in proceeding 
with their pleas.* 

'i'he ofiice of the judges, SiKmTai, resembled that of our jurymen -^ they were 
asu lily paid three oboh a day. They sat upon wooden benches, wiiich were covered 



186 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

with rugs ('//(a9('a). In addressing them the advocates stood upon eleAition? cfil?oiJ 
dnaara. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were nianv 
hi Athens who seem to have made it tlieir business to discover grounds ot accusaiion 
against the wealthy. These men gained the name of auKoipiivrai, a term which was 
first applied to such as prosecuted persons that exported figs ((i™ toS anKa ipaiveiv)^ a law 
prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when there was a great 
scarcity of that fruit.^ 

» See Sir VI'. /ajjcs's Pref ice to Issus (cf. P. V. § 10 1. 3), ^ See /. Pettingal, Enquiry into the Practice and Use cf Juries among 

the Greeks and Romans. Lond. 17ti9. 4. 3 Cf. Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxi.sect. !. 

3. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The 
five other civil courts besides the Helicsa were those called Ylajju^vjroy, Tpiyoiuop, To 

Kaiudi', To hri AiJx-o i, and To Mrjri'xou. 
Respecting these courts, see Mtkr, as cited § 108. 2. — Sdiomann, Ant. Jur. Publ. Grasc. — Plainer, Process und Klagen. 

§ 111. In addition to the ten puhlic courts, there was a]so a judicial body, 
called U tsaoapdxovta, consisting of forty persons chosen by lot, who held their 
courts successively in the several districts of Attica having- cog-nizance of cases 
where the sum or value at stake did not exceed ten drachmas. 

There was likewise a body of Jrhifrafors, Atat-rj^r'ai, consisting of 440 aged 
men, forty-fonr from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to 
settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, hut subject to appeal. 
These were called xKri^catol, being chosen by lot. — Disputing parties were 
allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called 5ta?AaxT'>7pi.o£, 
or xat 87iLT^po7trv AtaLtJ^raL. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior 
courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators. 

The number of public arbitrators or SiairriTai K\r]pbiToi stated above is drawn from a passagrc 
in Ul()ian upon Demoslhenes ; soine writers have pro|)Osed a different reading of the passage so 
as to make the whole number but forty, /o(tr from each tribe. — The private arbitrators were 
sotnetimes termed Siarrirai aipe-roi. 

Clasi. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Af. H. fludwalcker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Diiteten in Athen, und den Process vor dems.'ilbtn. 
Jena, 1812. 

§ 112. Jcfiuns or suits were divided into two classes; public {Bixai byj/.i66ia\,y 
xatrjyopiat), such as concerned the whole state; and private (§i,xat Ibiat, and 
8uxat, simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the 
following: Fpa^^jJ, an action for the highest crimes, as e.g. wwric/er ((jswoj), /?o/.son 
{(pap^axoif), arson (rtypxaia), sacrilege {Upoav'Kia), and many others esteemed 
less heinous; •^dat^, an action for the crime of embezzling .or in someway 
squandering public property ; ^'Ei^Sft|tj, an action against persons usurping 
prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusino- trial although confessincr guilt; 
ATtaycoy/y, an action against a criminal taken in the act; 'E(|)-/jy-/y(7tj, against a 
criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate; 'Aj^§poX>j4/Ja, 
against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur- 
dered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing party and 
retain them until further satisfaction; 'EK?ayyf?tta, an action for a public 
offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against the ALautritai when 
one was dissatisfied with their decisions.- — Actions belonging to the class called 
private were far more numerous, and were named according to their various 
occasions. 

Some of the puhlic actions included under the general denomination of ypaipfi, and 
not named above, were ihe following : rpaiiixa iK7:po>oLa;, a wound given by design ; 0ov- 
\evatg, conspiracy; djiJua, impiety; Trpodo^Tta, treachery; desertion, whether from the 
army, 'XsnroarpaT-.o ', or the fleet, Xenro.'avnoy, or from a particular station, XeiTrord^Loy; fri- 
volous prosecution, avacpa -Tia ; bribery both against the giver, SsKa^rpog, and against the 
receiver, 6(')p')SoK'.a. 

SoiTK! of the private actions or suits were the following: KaKrjyoplas SIkt], an action of 
slander; xp^oos ^lkt), an action for usury; diKia; diKri, an action of battery; (iXxfim, of 
trespass ; kXott?];^ of theft ; ^^suSopiapT ■plo >, for perjury. 

§ 113. The kinds of punishment were various, according to the nature and 
degree of the oflfence for which they were inflicted. . Of those not capital, the 
following were the principal : (1) Ti/^jj^ar'a, pecuniary j^ne, called also Zr^/.tia; 
this was sometimes aggravated by corporeal punishment : (2) 'ATiixia, disgrace, 
which was of»three kinds; first, the loss of some privilege but not of posses- 
n'ons: second, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property; 



t 

F. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PUNISIfMENTS. REWARDS. 187 

third, the loss of all privilegps civil and sacred, bnth l)y the criminal himself 
and his whole posterity for ever: (3) Aov^na, slavery j this, hov^^ever, by So- 
lon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners, and such as had 
been disgraced (an^ot) : (4) SrJyuara, brand-marks, by a hot iron on the 
forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway slaves or freedmen: (5) 'EtrfKrj, 
in which the name of the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar^ 
exposed to public view : (6) Asa/xo^, bnjids ; of which there were several kinds; 
as the xv^iov (also z?toi6?), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and 
neck; the xoivl^, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast; 
the jaj^ts, a piece of wood to which the off'ender was bound as to a pillory; and 
the rpo;^o5, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured : 
(7) ^vyy], b.ii^vyio., banishment, with confiscation ot goods. 

Banishment is said to have been preferred by the Greel< courts to imprisonment, on account 
of the expense occasioned by the latter. The prison at Athens was termed SeafjayTfif^iov, and by 
euphemism, oiKrifia. Prisons in different regfioiis were called by different names . in Bceolia, 
there was the ' \vayKaTov ; at Sparta, the KeaSag ; at Cyprus, the Kepaijios ; at Corinth, the Kwj ; 
at Samos, the Fopyvpa. 

§ 114. The Ostracism, datpaxLaftb^, was not, properly speaking, a judicial 

punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such persons as were thought 

to be dangerous to the state. The votes were given by shells, oarpaxa; each 

man marked upon his octtpa^i-ov the name of the person he would banish ; if 

the same name was upon the majority of GOOO shells, the person was sentenced 

to banishment. The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under 

th's sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a 

similar custom among them. The Syiacusan punishment was called U.sta'kLa 

/xb^, because the name was written on leaves, neta7.a. 

The ostracism is said by some to have been institnted by Hijipias, son of Hipparchus ; others 
say by Ciisthenes. B. C about 510, who was first banished by it. It continued about one hun- 
dred years; it was abolished B.C. about 412, and because it was then degraded by being em- 
ployed on a very contemptible person by the name of Hyperbolns. Among the illustrious Athe- 
nians who were driven from the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides, 
Citncn, and Aristides. 

Geinoz, L'Ostracism, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145. 

§ 115. The punishment of death, ©amroj, was inflicted in several modes; as 
by the sword, Ht^o^, beheading ; by the rope, Bp6%o^, strangling or hanging; by 
poison, ^dpixaxov, drinking hemlock {xJ^vnov) usually; . by the precipice, 
Kpvixvbs, casting from a rock or height ; by the KataTtovnaixb^, drowning. 

Other modes of inflicting death were, by the Y.Tavpdi, crucifying, a mode used by 
the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvixnaya, or healing, 
in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, BapaOpoj/, which 
was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also "0/;»y/.(a) ; by 

itonhi'T, ALBo[io\ia; and by burning, llvp. The punishment of death could not be 

lawfully inflicted upon any citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley. 
{h napaXos rpifiprjg) which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. 

§ 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons. 
Among these, were the following; (1) npofSpJa, the front or /rs/ sea/, in the 
theatres, at the festivals and on all public occasions; (2) 'Etzwi/, a statue, 
erected in a public place; (3) ^t^^avoi, crowns, conferred by the senate, or the 
people, or by particular tribes and boioughs upon their own members; these 
were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) 'Ath.fia, ex- 
emption from taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the 
contributions required for war and for the navy; (5) Xi-rrjoc^ iv ITpi'rawtw, 
entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ,• originally limited to a 
single day; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some (anfftroi) ; 
it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole 
families, and was viewed as a high distinction. After the death of such as 
had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some 
measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty 
in the better times of the republic, but became quite com.mon afterwards, and 
lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. 

§ 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of thei* 
■Vw'.s- as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed 'o Ceres and 



!8S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Triptolemiis (P. II. § 01). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Olisthenes, ana 
Demetrius Phalereus, were the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted 
by the Athenians. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased witl. 
the changing- circumstances of the state. It was fcommonly the province of the 
Ufnitdvsi^ to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called 
either a decree, '^r^mua, when it had only some specific application, or law, 
vofio^, when its obligation was universal and unchanging. An ordinance of 
Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or 
additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood 
(cf. P. IV. § 53). 

1. The term I'Ofxo; designates what may be called a constitutional law, or estabhshed 
orinciple, as distinguished from a particular enactment ; thus it would be applied e. g. 
to the laws of Draco and Solon, although those of Draco were commonly called 
Oso-itn, in distinction from those of Solon called vojxoi. The term i'o,aoj is also sometimes 
used in the sense of ^t/i.^-, a natural right or social usage or fixed custom. 

2. If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to iho Ylp<rdv£i<;, who brought it 
before the sena'e (PovXri) ; if the senate approved, it was called a JlpojSovXEviAa ; it was 
written by the np'mii^Eii upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues of the 
'Kmovvjioi, some days before the meeting of 'ho assembly (i«-«:Anj(a) ; from this circum- 
stance, it was also called Trpoypajxaa. 

It ^'i'l not comport with the limits nf this sketch to detail jiarlicular Athenian laws.— These may be found ic Sam. Petit, Leges 
Alticse (cf. P. V. § 55 3), and in the work entitled Jurisprudentia Rumana el Mtica, T. iii.— Comp. Jo. Meursii Themis Attica, 

L. B. 1624. 4.— See also /'o/(£?'s Archasologia Giaeca, bk. i. ch. xxvi. The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally art 

exhibited by Kopke in NitsMs Beschreibung, &c. cited 5 13. 

■ ^118. Next to Athens, Lacedaemon was the most flourishing of the Grecian 
Btates, and its most remarkable antiquities should be briefly noticed (cf. § 40). 
The province in which this city lay bore the same name, but was called also 
Lelegia, CEbalia, Laconia or Laconicn, and was the largest part of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. The city of Lacedamon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken 
plain, on the river Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction 
of Lycurgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its 
edifiices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just idea of the 
power and resources of the. state. 

On the civil consti'ution of this slate, we may refer to /. K. F. Manao, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Aufklarung der Geschichte und 
Verfassu'n^ dieses Staats. Leipz. I8(.'0-5. 3 vols. 8. — Nitsch, Beschreibung, kc. as cited § 13. — MUHer, Uisfory-and Antiquities of 
ttie Doric Race. Transl. by Tufnell and Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8 — I'V. Drummond, Review of the Governments of Sparta 
and Athens. — C. P. Ltvesque, Sur la Constitution rie Sparta, in the Merit, de Vfnstitvt, C 1 a s s e des Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iii. 

On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see P. I. §§ 126-129. — A view of the modern village Mistra, near ts site, is given in the 
P'.ate on pai;e 37. 

§ 119. In Lacedasmon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had received 
the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, and such as had 
acquired them personally. They were together divided into six tribes, of which 
that of the Heraclidee was the first. Each of these was again subdivided into 
• ive classes, called w|3ai/', making thirty in all. The presidents or leaders of 
these were called rspoax-fat. 

1. The first class of ciiizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied vvith 
all the Spartan discipline, were called the ofioioi, or equals; while the other class were 
termed vTropisioveg, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of freedmen, 3nd all such 
as had not lully conformed to the Spartan discipline. 

C. F. Hermann, De conditione atque engine eorum qui Hnmoei ap. Laced, appellati .sunt. Maib. 1832. 4. Same authnr, Da 
causis turbatds apud Lacedaemonios agrnrum aqualitatis. Marb. 1S34. 

2. The division into six tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some 
state five as ihe number, not considering ihe HcraclidcB as a separate tribe. The 
others were the Aifivd-ai, so called from their residing near the marsh or morass (AT// /j) 
on the north side of the city; ihe Kwojo ^ptTi, so called from their vicinity to a branch 
of mount Taygetus termed K^nwaovpa {dog'' s tail) on account of its figure ; the IViTavi- 
rai; the M^aao't-ai; and the Alycloai, who received this name because they resided near 

rhe tomb of yEgeus, Aiyev;. Muller asserts', that in every Doric state there were 

Lkref tribes, 'YAX^r?, Y[aix(pv\oi, and An/xaj/cirai or An/^ai'Sf ; or the Hi/Jlean, Dymaiiatan, 
and Pnmphylian ; and says, we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of any other 
Liian these genuine Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into ten w/Jat. 
and adds, that two and probably more, yet not all, of the w^ai of the Hijlhan trihe 
must have been Heraclidee: Each of the w/?ai is said to have contained ten rpiaKure?, 
which were communities comprising thirty families. — There w^as another division of 
,'>e Spartans, into six u6oai consisting only of such^ as were of a proper age for Oiia- 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN MAGISTRATES. 189 

tary service. -A subdivision of tribes into ipparpiai, or yevri, or rpirrvei, is also meniioned 
as having f)revailed3 in various places. 

t See MUller, Hist, and Antiq. as cited § 118. vol. ii. p. 76-SO. 2 cf. Robinson, Archseol. Gr<sc. 3 IVachsmiclh, Histor. 

Ant. of Greecf*. 

§ 120. It is known that the Spartans were oblig-ed, on the birth of theii 
children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vig-or and soundness of 
constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the presidents of the iLjSai, or 
clans, M'hether they were suitable to be'preserved and raised; a regulation 
designed to prevent a population of weak and sickly citizens. The education 
of the children was treated with the greatest care. All the citizens not only 
had equal rights, but also a comtnunity of goods and privileges. The lands 
were, by the laws of Lycurgas, equally apportioned among them. 

As soon as a child was born, it was carried to a place called Lesche {Aea-\ri) to be 
examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having an imperfect 
frame or weak constitution, it was cast into a gulf, called, 'ATo'^irnc, near mount Tay- 
getus. If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was taken 
back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear placed near it. The 
whole education was intrusted to the parent until the child reached the age of seve7i p 
then the regular public education {ayoiyri) commenced. 'I'lie boys at this age were in- 
rolled in the classes termed AgelcB {■iyt\ai or (io^'ai. herds); such as refused this lost 
the rights of citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ; 
the other sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the master 
[UaiSojoixo;). The discipHne was more strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen 
they were called cnSeiii^ai. At eigtdeen they entered the classes termed ^v(3ol. and 
about two years affer received the appellation of eipvjes or 'ipzvs-,, and were admitted to 
the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as men, el-ifhi, and were allowed to 
undertake public ofHces. 

Cf. MillUr, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 313. 

§ 121. The slaves among the Lacedaemonians were treated with great cruelty 
(cf. § 99). There appears to have been but one class, viz. the Hehds (' EiT^.cor'f?), 
who according to the common account were derived from the maritime town 
Heloi. ("E?to?) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name as derived 
frotn (he verb tXw, and signifying priauners. The unhappy Messenians taken 
in the second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots. 

1 u. I'he Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most laborious 
and dangurous services' in war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even 
to the murderous attack of the young Spartans, especially in the custom termed 
Kp')7rT£!a, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded subjects. Yet 
some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, obtained liberty and citizen- 
ship, on occasion of receiving which they were crowned with garlands and led about 
the temples. They then were called tiTzvvaKToi, or (uphai, or vso^ajx kti. The last epi- 
thet seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights than the common 
freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-born. The number of slaves in 
this state was very large. 

2. The rt/£ra( were a class released probably from all service; the rp'/c-'lps? wen. 
slaves employed only in war ; the ha-oaunavTai served on board the fleet ; the /i'lOwj/^j, 
were domestic slaves brought up with the young Spartans and then emancipated. 

3. There was another class of inhabitants in 'he province of Lacednemon, who a! 
though not slaves were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spartans. They were 
the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and deperde^M state ; they 
were called i'er/cpf/ {XUpioimi). They were engaged in the navy and in the army 
along with Spartan citizens, and somctimes'were intrusted with offices : at the battle 
of Plataea there were 10 000 men of this class. 

Respecting 'he Perioeci and Ihe Helots, see MUUer, vol. ii. p. '7, 30. — C'appcronien, Sur i'esclavage des Hiloles, in tlje Mem. Acad 
Jnscr. xxiii. 271 , , 

§ 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders (ap;i'»yf'T'ai), 
who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidae. and must possess an 
unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the full regal authority (n'au- 
3a6i%iia), hut a power limited by the laws, to which they were accustomed 
every month to swear obedience. In war their power was greatest. They had 
also the oversight of the worship of the gods, and sometimes performed ihe 
office of priests. 

In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate ana i>ropo»e rtu^ 
subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any questi in. In war th*' 

16 



190 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

SparJiin kings had unlimited command {aTparrjyog d'jTOKp.irwp), and could even put to 
death without trial {s:v x^'poj I'o/ito). They are said also to have had in time of war espe- 
cially a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths {'nnrsTg) ; 
from this number five were annually selected and employed for one year, under the 
name of dya'hzpvo'i, in missions to other states. Many dissensions grew out of the 
double monarchy (-^lapx'?). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. 3/ii/Z*", vol. ii. 
p. 106. 

§ 123. Lycuro-us established a senate of 28 men, of blameless character, and 
upwards of 60 years old, which was called yepovoia, or yfpcoi^Ja.* The member.* 
had an equal right of votino^ with the two kings, and rendered no account of the 
mannerof discharging their office. — There were also rive Ephori (t(|)opot), who had 
an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the 
rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the 
people, without reference to condition. — The Bft-Statot were a class of olfi- 
cers, who were placed over the t^7]i5oi, between the ages of 18 and 20. 

The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called iaoTvpawog, and were not required to 
give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for one year. 
Their tribunal {^.(poftXov) was in the forum. — The '^uhiaXoi were five in number, with a 
sixth as their irptjfiv;. They had the inspection of the gymnastic exercises, called 
v:\nTdviaTa. because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their pro- 
vince to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place ef 
council also in the foruin. I'he common name for the council-halls of these and other 
magis' rates was apxela. 

§ 124. The. Spartans had other magistrates; as the No/to(|)i;Xax:tj, who saw 
that the laws were maintained and executed; the Apfionwot, to whom was en- 
trusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct 
their exercises; the 'E^Ttixcopot,, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies 
of the people, and attended in general to the police of the forum or market; the 
Ilv^rtoi-, four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles ; 
the npolsvoc, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the re- 
ception of strangers; the IlpoStxot, who had the care of the young kings as 
tutors; the Haihovofxoi, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys put 
under their care at the age of 7 ; the 'Apuofl-fai, who were a sort of sheriffs in 
the city and province; the TLox^jxfxpy^oi^ who under the kings superintended the 
affdirs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; the 
'irtrtaypt'rat, three offi.cers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen. 

§ 12.5, The assemblies [sxxXrjrsiai) of the people were similar to those at 
Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met; in others there 
were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia; 
in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs of common interest 
and imprirtance to the whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the 
power of convening the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, 
who also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice {j3ovj 
xai ov -^yjrpifi), and the majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by £ 
subsequent division and counting of the two parties. 

The as- embly composed only of the ci izens of Sparta was called ^iKpa tKKXrjma, and 
usually njct once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing arms might attend, 
and, if above the age of thirty, might speak. '1 he meetings were originally in the 
open air luit at a laier period were held in an edifice, called c/ciaj, erected for the pur- 
pose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, [KK\r](jLa. It 
consisted of the kings, the senators, the nmgistra'es, and the deputies of Laconia. 

§ \-?,6. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common 
meals and termed avr^attla, ^uSitLa, and ^tTitr'ta, was designed for the purpose 
of speaking upon matters of public importance. 

In this asseml)ly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain 
iialls, where a runnber of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member 
could be admi.ted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the 
same. Every niem.ber contributed to the provisions from his own stores; a specified 
qiiniui y of barley meal or cakfes {pd',<u). wine, cheese, and figs, and a small sum of 
money for meat, was expected from each. A clo.?e union was formed between those 
of the same table, 'fhe regular meal was termed a'iKAo.' ; after this was a dessert called 
h-iiKMi 'The men only were admitted: small children were allowed to sit on stools 
nf»ar •h'^ir lathers and receive a half-share witiiout vegetables {dPaupMcvara) ; the youtn 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. LAWS OF CRETE. lOL 

and boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couche5> of hard 
oak. The chief dish was the hlackhroih (iieXa; vw/^of).' 1 ht; .Spartans had also anoihei 
kind (>f solemn feast, called Korrig, to which foreigners and boys were admitted along 
with the citizens. 2 

1 Tlie reader niny be amused by the follo" in? passase frnni Sir Henry Blruiit, who traveled in Turkey, in 1634 " The Turks 
have a drink called rnuphe, made of a berry as big as a small bean, dried in a furnace and beat In powder, of a sooty color, in 
taste.a lillle bitterish, that they sethe and drink, ho! as may be endure 1 ; it is g(x>d at all hours of the day, but especially njorning and 
evening, when to Ihal purpose they entertain themselves two or three hours in cauphe-houses, which in Turkey abound more than 
inns and al^ houses with us. It is thought to bt the old black broth vsed so much by the Lacedsnumiaiis. It drieih ill hun.ours in 
the stomach, coinfcrtelh the brain, never caiiseth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a harmless entertainment of sood fellow. 
ship." — ^ R bmstm's Archseol. Graec. p. 159.— Cf. Milller, ii. 289. 

§ 127. Judicial actions were very summary among- the Spartans. Eloquence 
found no place in them; no advocates were employed; every one was obliored 
to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the 
kinors, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deci 
sion of a certain class of questions. The most important questions, and particu- 
larly all of a capital nature, belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- 
lies were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. 

Cf. Rdbin^oii, bk. ii. cli xxii. — On the authority i f 'he E|.hori, MUlltr. bk. iii. ch vii. ; and bk. iii. ch. ii § 2, on 'he Spnrta'i 
Courts. 

§ 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens. 
The most common mode of inflictintj death was by stranjrjinff or suffocation. — 
Stealing was punished not so much for the theft committed, as for the want of 
shrewdness and dexterity betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to be 
detected. 

1. Strangling was effected by means of a rope (Ppoxog, (ipoyxo;) ; it was always dont 
in the night and in a room' in th^ pubhc prison called ^cku;. Death was also inflicted 
by casting the maletacior into the pit- called Ka:,i-'a; ; this was always doi.e likewise 
by night. Aristomenes ihe Messenian was cast into ihis. but survived the fall and 
effected an escape, which was considered as very wonderlul. Besides ilie punish- 
ments Z?7//:(i, 'Arifi'ia. and Ki';/)W' or KAotoj, mentioned among Athenian penalties (cf. 
"?* 113), ihe Spartans'^ had y^ arrLyMaig , ii)/iq>plnir, which the offender received as he was 
driven through the city, and KE/rvo-t?, goading, which was a similar punishment. Ba- 
nishment, $uy'7, seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence; 
but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape dea'h or infamy {inn a). 

1 Robiiifon, Arch. Gise,-. bk. ii. ch. 24. 2 Cf Thiic. i. iSi.—Paus. iv. IS ^ i.—Sirab. \\ii.—MitJord, Hist, of Greece, ch. iv. 

jeer. 4. 2 Cf. Milller, Hist and Ant. Dor. vol. ii. p. 23.5 

2u. Among the Spartans also various rewards and distinctions were bestowed on 
persons of merit, bo'h while living and after death. 

3. Among 'he distinc'ions conferred on the meritorious, the Uposdpa, Jirat seat in a 
public assembly, was highly honorable. Much'value was attached to the olive-crovm, 
'EAa.?7,- a-:(pa'n;\ as a reward for l)ravery, and to the f/iotigs. BaAo-ej, with which victors 
in the contes's were bound. But it was oi^.e of the highest honors of the city to be 
elec;ed into the number of the three hundred constituting the three chosen [iands of 

horsemen (§ 124), termed Aod'e:. 'I'o ccnmiemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs 

{k£ ora!nn), and Other monuments were erected. 

§ 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its author, and was 
marked by some strong peculiarities. The foim of government was distin- 
guished from that of all the other states by its union of njonarchical v^'ith aristo- 
craiical and (lemocratical traits. There were in Sparta no written laws; they 
were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycur- 
gus styled them ^j-rtpat. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed 
to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and voluj)tuousness 
Althouoh they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their 
authority through a period of above 800 years. 

Cf. Miilltr, as before ciied, vol. ii p 67, 235 — Xoifp/in/i, on the Polity of the Lacelasmoniars (cf. P V. ^ IS6).— 1 he works cite- 
US. 

§ 1.30. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, tno island of Crete presents a 
constitution the mf)St reniark^ihle. It is here, as has been stated (§ ^S), tbrii 
we find the origin of the institutions of Lycnrgrus. During the republican r;?- 
vernment which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ter. olfi- 
cers annually as chief n:agisirates. These were called ros/;//, xdo,uo:; and werp 
taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which wasct-n* 
suited only on imnoitant qmstions; it consisted of 28 meinbers, who fnr the- 



102 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order ol 
knights^ who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public 
use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not 
great ; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. 

Cf. MUllcr, vol ii p. 99, .34.-//otA, Kreta. Gotiing. 1S29. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces 
of them found indifferent writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had 
public meals, which they called avh^ua. — Slaves were treated with comparative 
mildness. 

1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, " by that system of laws which, in an 
age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, in- 
forced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not 
only the particular inodel of the wondertul polity, so well known to us through the 
fame of Laceda3mon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legis- 
lation and jurisprudence ; and which continued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest 
sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and philosophy." 

See Saiiite Croix, Des Aiiclens gnuvernenieiils federatifs, et legislation de Crete Par. 1776. 

2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen 
called by the Cretans fxvoia; the slaves oi individual citizens, a0a//twr«£ ; and the tribu- 
taries, ^7r>'Koot. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the dependent classes^ 
were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employment and profession, 
with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, were permitted to tiiem. 
— Mulier, as cited <^ 118, vol. ii. 5. 

3. The name d '^psia is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as 
at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had the care 
of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distinguished by their great hospi- 
talitv ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — Mulier, 
ii. 225. - 

The term dy^Xr] was used to designate an assembly of yoimg men. who lived toge- 
ther from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. These young men, 
called dyeXmroi, were under the care of a person termed dyEX'irri;, who superintended 
their military and gymnastic exercises. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 

§ 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Boeolia, a monarchical government 
existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a republican. Yet this state 
did not rise to any great celebrity, at least for a long time; the cause -was per- 
haps the whole national character of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, 
there were in Thebes Boeotarchs, Boi,orap;j'at, and Polemarchs UoUi^iapxot; the 
former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Bceotia 
was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the 
other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but 
never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants was not permitted, 
but if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state. 
Pansanias has recorded in his description of Boeotia many remarkable features 
of the later condition of the Theban state. 

Tlie BcBotians liad a greni natinnal festival, Ylaj.t/Soi'j'^ria, in honor of Athena lloiiia, who had 
a temple near Cornnea, near which the fe'Piival was held. 

CC._ Mitfurd, ch. v. sect. \.—Ri(ml-RncluUe^ Administration de I'Elat Federatif des BcEoliens, in the Mem. dt VJnstitut, C lasse 
rmst. et Ln. Aic. vol. viii. p. 214 

§ 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinih but little is known. It was 
at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphidae and Bacchiadae were the 
most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocratical ''brm was introduced, 
one chief magistrate was chosen yearly called u^vtavii;. He was supported by 
a senate, rspouoJa. The assembly of the people never had equal authority; 
their power was oftpn very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and en- 
joyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two 
harbours so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de- 
stroyed by the Romans, B. C. HG, but was afterwards rebuilt by Caesar, and 
became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra were colonies of Corinth. 
The last city is specially remarkable, from the fact, that a dispute between itself 
3nd Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for <» 
hwQ time governed by GOO of the oldest men, called yfio^opot ; but afterwards 
sBcame entirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. 

' f UUller, as before cited, vo'. ii. p 130. 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 193 

§ 134 Jrgos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings. 
In later times it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It had 
Its senate, and another body of magistrates consisting of eighty members, and 
a class of public officers called aprvvoi.. 

Cf. MUller, vol. ii, p. I4<» 147. 

In the history of ^toIta,we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or 
confederacy between the cities of that di^rict. This confederacy was called 
the Fanastolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which 
the masfistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was 
"^alleu (5TpaT'77y6?, and was at the same time chief military commander. This 
officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (artoxJ^rjifoi) 
was a different body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- 
gencies. 

See P. W. Tittmann, Darslellung der Griech. Staatsverfassunsen. I.eipz. 1822. 8. 

The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held their com- 
•uon assemblies twice a year at ^gium. In these originally presided one 
Tpa^juarfi)?, with two SrparT^yot ; and at a later period, one ^Tpar'/yyo^, besides 
whom there were ten AT^jU-torpyot to attend to the public affairs of the con- 
federacy. 

Cf. Breilerbauch, Geschichfe der Acliier und ihres Bundes. Leipz. 1762. 

t ■ 

HI. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

§ 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), was a main 
trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in 
their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more 
emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by iheir educa- 
tion, bound by their laws and their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by 
their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were ac- 
cordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. 
The Thebans, likewise, for a certain period, maintained the repu'ation of dis- 
tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this 
respect; and although in the war w'ith Xerxes they agreed that Athens should 
command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon sgain fell 
into dissension, and the Spartans stripped the Athenians, for a lime, of that 
naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest 
advantages. 

On Grecian military affairs, see Nast, ICdphe, &c. cited § 42. 

§ 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were 
early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at Athens the twentieth 
year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released 
only by the approaching weakness of age. At Athens the citizens were ex- 
empted from military service at the age of forty, except in cases of extreme 
danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employ- 
ment. Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made 
out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xarar^pa^yj, or xatdxoyo^ 
The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citizen considered it a 
disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree, 
a substitute. Pericles, however, introduced the payment of a stipend, which 
was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwe-ahh. 

At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; id erwards iour ; whence TtTpo)(i6\of 
0'o; signified a soldier's life, and TETpcofhAl eiii, to .serve in war. The pay ot a soldier ni 
the cavalry, termed /caTaarmis, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, wiih 
an allowance for a servant. 

On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expfnses, ste ^§ 103, 104. — On the military regulations, cf. (iat 
iner, Sur les loix militaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vol xlv. p. 2:'9. — Cf. ) 42. 

§ 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian soldiers were 
of three classes; footsoldiers or infantry, to 7t?Ci-'<:oi' ? the cavalry, to t^' tTfrtwi'; 
and such as were borne in chariots, to ffj)' o^rf^oLtutv. The infrintry comprised 
three kinds; the ^Ttutat., heavy armed, who carried a cotnpleie and full arinor. 



104 QRECIAN ANTItlUITIES. 

and were distinguished particularly by a large shield {otCKov) ; the Ttf^.-aarai, 

largeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield {rteM^) ; and tho 

4/i?iot, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. — The 

war chariots were not much used after the intioduction of cavalry. 

The chariots, termed 6pcnavr}ip6poi, were potnetidies terribly destructive, heinji armed with 
sythes, wiih which whole ranks of sohJiers were poiiietiiiies cut down. — In Plnte XVll fi<;. K, 
one of these chariots is ()reseiite(l, drawn by two hurses wlii< h are protected by a covtrinu of 

mail. It triay be worthy of remark here, that snch chariots were used by ihe ancient Britons 

atui Belgians, and are designated in the Roman wriiers by the i.rms ccnini aiui esseila. (Lucan, 
Phars. i. 4"2b. — 7'uc. Agric. xxxvi. — Cces. Bell. Gall. iv. 33.— Jl/t/a, iii 6.) "The coritms was a 
terrible instrument of destructnin, being artrred with sharp syilies and hooks for cutting and 
iearing ail who were so unh»p|)y as to come within iis reach." R. Jlenry, History of Great 
Britain, (.first ed.) Lond. 1771-93. 6 vols. 4. 

§ 13R. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consisted only of 
citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain 
their horses. The tTtTtft?, therefore, at Athens as M'ell as Sparta, held a high 
rank. Those who wished to attain this rank were first examined in respect 
to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch 
or Phularch {iTiTtdpxrjs, ^Vkdpxy;^) appointed for the purpose. They were called 
by various names according to the weapons of armor they used; as, e. g., 
axpoi5o'kiatdi, who threw missiles; 8opato^6pot, who carried spears or lances; 
irtTto-rolo-rat, ^laro^popoi, xouto^opoi,, ^vp^o^opoo, etc. The following articles 
constituted their principal armor: a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a 
large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. 

The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished int-o the heavy -armed, kh- 
TafjpaKTOi, and ligld-anned, i^ri KardcppaKroi. I'he former not only were defended by armor 
themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which 
were named, from the parts oi the horse covered by them, -pnfiST(o-i6ia, T:i)0(yc.pviha, napa- 
^■qpidia, -apanXevpLdia, ■napaKi'njx'-^ia, etc. The trappings ol the horses were termed (/>'A(i/ja; 
various and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered clo.hs were 
often used. — The s^iyiaxai were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to 
serve either on horseback or on foot. — I'he "A/i'i)(--oi were such as had two horses; 
called also (V-aywyoI, because they led one of their horses. — After the time of Ale.xun- 
der, elephants were introduced from the east; but they were after a short period laid 
aside, as they vvere found too unmanageable to be relied upon with much confidence. 
When used, they carried jnto battle large towers, containing from ten to thirty sol- 
diers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, while they were themselves 
in comparative safety. 

SaWer and Freret, Orig. de IVquitatinn dans la Grecp, in llie Mem. Jicad. Inner, vii. 33, 286.— />c Maizeroy, La C valerle Grecque 
in the same Mem. &c. xli. 242. — Larcher, L'ordre equestie chez les Grecs. in ttie same Mem. &c. xlviii. 83. 

§ 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been already 
described (§ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, that in later times 
there wore many changes, as to the forms of the articles, and the manner of 
using them. 

1. The breastplate (& paf) consisted of two parts, one for a defence for the back, 
the other for the breast, united ar the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two 
continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called 5- p<i^ crr.iSto^ ; 
when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connected as in a chain, it was 
called &'Jpa^ d\ au^coro; ; it guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it was called 
iujpal \£Tri6iordi. 'I'he hyuQMp.iKMj protected only the front part of the body ; Alexander 
allowed only this to his soldiers — Within the ^<:pal. and next to the skin the Greeks 
also wore often a defensive armor of brass lined with wool, which was termed /iiVfi?. 
Cf. Horn. II. iv. 137, 187. 

Tlie thorax is seen in fig. r, nf Pice XXII. ; also on Ihe \varrior, fig. 7. In fi:;. 5, the thorax seems to be guarded with plates likil 
the scales jf a fish ; also in Plate XXXIV fn. b. 

2. The shield (io-yrij) wben of w^ood was made of the li'gbtest kind, as willow, beach, 
poplar. &e. When made of hide {icrrriki; (ioeiai), there were usually several thicknesses 
co\'ered with a plate or pla'es of metal. Its chief parts were the outer edge or cir- 
cumference, ''^ril, IVif, Kv<Xo;, trepuptpeia \ the boss or prominent part in the middle, 
VfidxiXo; fxznoyi'pWio'j \ the thong of leather by which it was attached to the shoulders, 
rfXa'/ijv; the rings l)y which it was held in the hands, n^ipiraKeq, for which the handle, 
5,xai'ov. consisting of two small bars placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Lit- 
tle bells were sometimes bung upon ihe shields to increase the terror ocr'usioned l)y 
shaking them. X ivjtia Was the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from 
injury When rot in actual use, the word also designates a packsaddle. Various epi- 
t'leis are applied to shields; u//(/)//ipd-oj, dfipajjii'iKn;, noin^nKni, indicative of size; tV^rcvAot, 



P I> A V E X X 1 I. 




195 



196 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

rrai'TOTi iirai, of shape. The Tkipov was in the shape of a rhombus, and fi/st used bj 
the Persians; the Qvpzo^ was oblong and l)ent inward ; the Aaafnoi' was composed ol 
hides wiih the hair on, and was very light ; the lltXrr? was small and light, and, ac- 
cording to some, shaped like a halt-moon. 

In I'la e XXII. are several forms of shields; see fig. 3, fig. 4, fig. 7. See also I'late XXX. fig. I, fig. 4 ; and Tlale X.XXIII. fii. I 
fig. 2. 

3. Besides the offensive weapons wliich have already l)eeri named (see ? 45, and Plate X VH.), 
we may mention the poviard, cMh'd '^afmlnpihoi', iy\iipic)inv, wvA naxaipn; it answ<;red the 
purpose of'a knife. In later aires, the aKivuKrfi was I) rrowed from tile Persians. This has i:ene- 
rally heen considered as cni-ved and has nsually been translated cimitir ; in Sii.iih's Dictionary 
it is contended, that it was straijriit like tin- dajri^'er ; the writer qnotes .loseplius (Jivt. Jud. .\x. 
7-10) as sayiti}; of the assassins who infested Jn'dea Itefore the (iesiniciion of Jerusalem, that 
"they used diiirgers in size resemlilina: the Persian dcinaces, hnt curved, and like Ihosf. 
wliicli the Romans called .vjrtr, and from which r(d)bers and murderers are called ,s2c«/» ;'' the 
acinncps seems to have hnen wnm on the rij:ht side. The Konli or fulchiini (eti.-i.s falcatus) was 
also used in haitle ; as was likewise the bnitle-nx^ al'ivt}, r\\\A the tteXckvs. 'I'he Macedonians 
had a pecnliar kind nChmii- spe<n\ called aaptaaa 'Vhf club of wood or iron, Khpvvri, was a wea- 
pon of early times. — We may mention riinong the offensive weapons the ir\ipo(i6\ui \iOoi, fire- 
balls : one l<ind {aKVTnXta) wera made of wood and armeci with spikes of iron, under which were 
fi.xed hemp, pitch, and other combustibles; these, being set on lire, were hurled into the ranks 
of the enemy. 

In Phle XVII. fig. C, is tlie fidxai'pa i ii Plate XX.XIII, fig. 4, we see hanging at the right thi.<h Ihe weapon which the writer 
mentioned above considers as the atcivdnrj^ ; the same is .sten in the hand of Mithras, in the Sup. Piale 9 ; cf. al.-.o fig. B, in Plate 
XVII. 

On the various articles of armor, see Fiisiroke's Encyclopaedia. — S. R. Meynck. Critical In(|niry into Ancient Armor, &c. with'a 
Glossary of Names of Ihe Arms of the Middle Ages. Lond. IS24. 3 vols. 4 ; a work which may be reconimendeJ to ihe student 
desirous of full information on this suhj' ct. 

§ 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the kings them- 
selves, although at the same time certain men, eaiinently brave, vi^ere appointed 
to be pnlemarchs or generals. Subsequently each tribe chose its own com- 
mander, who was called orpar'/^yo?. At Athens it became customary to appoint 
ten, who had equal power, and who held the chief command one day each in 
regular rotation, when they took the field together. Over these was a pole- 
niarch, whose opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an 
equal division among them ; at a later period, however, this officer {no^iy-ai^x^i) 
had no share in military affairs (§ 101). — There were also ten taxiarchs, 
ra|Lap;i^ot, subordinate to the Gt{)atriyoi ; their duty was to put the army in array 
for battle, mark out the camp, regulate the order of march, and in general 
attend to the preservation of discipline. Subordinate also to the Stralegi were 
the two generals of the horse, t7t7tap;yoc, who had under them ten ^vXa^x^^i one 
nominated by each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as "koxayoi^ x'-'>^'-^9- 
Xot, ixcKtovraf^jxoit 5f3<;a6ap;^ot, TtF/u.TtdBapxf^'-i the names being derived from the 
number of men commanded by them. 

§ 141. The whole army was called crpartd ; the front, fisruTiov or ytptoroj 
^vybi ; the wings, %ipara; the rear, o-upd or ta;i:aro$ ^uyo^. The smallest divi- 
sion, consisting of five men, was called a Tiffirtug; a "koxos contained from ten 
to a hundred men, according to different circumstances; and a raltj, a hundred, 
or a hundred and twenty-eight. 

The ra^tf v\'as also called cKarovTaoxin. Each division of this sort had five attendants, 
who {cKraKToi) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the arpaTUKripK^, who reported the officsr's 
commands to the soldiers; the (r.^stinpopoi, who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or 
watchwords; the o-aXTii y>cr>K, a trumpeter; the vvrjpsTrjg , who supplied the membeis of 
the division with necessaries ; and the dvpayds, whose business was to see that none 
of the number were left behind. 

Some of the larger divisions ; cvyrayixa, consisting ol two raltiq, or 256 men : -ncvra- 
Koaiapx'ia, two avi/raypara, or 512 men ; XiXtapxtu, two of the last, or 1024 men ; Mcpa^x'ia, 
or Te>.Oi. twice the preceding, or 2048 men ; (PaXayyapx'ia, or Yrpa-nyia sometimes, 

twice the TtAw?, or 4096 men ; the commander of the latter was called (jTpaTriy6(;. 

The term (p'tXay^ signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers; some- 
times a body of 4000, as just mentioned ; and sometimes any number of troops in 
general. . Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained fourUmes the num- 
ber included in the (paXayyapxta, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. 

§ 142. While the term ^wx^iayl is often used in a general sense for any num- 
ber of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arraniremeni 
in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock; 
the JMncedonians wen^ especially celebrated fiir usino- it to advantage. — The 
"n^n'Knv was the same with the Roman cxineua, an arrangement in the form of a 



p. Ill MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PHALANX. HERALDS. CAMPS. 197 

wedge, in order to force a way more easily and farther into the midst n\ aii 
enemj. — Wheeling-, turninor, or facing, was called xy^Vrts ; to the riorht, tTtu Sopu, 
the spear being in the right hand; to the left, irt' ao7tc6a, the shield being 
held in the left. Taming conipleiely about was termed ixftai5o%rj. — 'J'he Greeks 
Dossessed great skill and readiness in manoeuvres, and had teachers of the art, 
raxTixoh v/ho instructed the youth in the practice. 

1. Various forms were given to ihe ip'iXayl. £onie of which were not rectangular; as 
the £-iKaiJL->;i'<pi\ayl, which presented the torm of a half-moon, and was also called 
Kvprri and K'oiX?; p'j'^i3ou6h; ipiXay^, which was in the figure of a diamond. In the pha- 
lanx, ^ 'yoi signified the ranks, taken according to its length, jUilvo; ; arixoi (also Xd^ot) 
the files taken according to its depih, 0.'i.do;. — -Another order of array for battle was the 
^nXii^Ow. brick, a rectangular presenting its length to the enemy. — The -rrvpyo;, tower, 
was the same form, with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. — 
The -Xaic-io!' seems to have been an exact square or nearly so. — The Koi\in(io\ov was a 
figure like the letter V, with the open part tovv-ard the enemy. — I'he I'A?? was in the 
form of an egg, according to which the Thessalians usually arranged their cavalry. — 
Of the varioas terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add cnly the follovving ; 
ffEXry//!;, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after another, changed 
the front for the rear, or one flank for another; ^(TrXaTiaj/^js, an enlarging of the body, 
either by adding men or by extending the same number over a great space. 

2. The term Wr], soriietimes applied as above mentioned, to designate a certain order of array, 
was generally used to signify a body of cavalry ; a troop soineiiines consistin;; of 64 horsenieti. 
Two such troops constilnted the STTiXapxia, containijig 128 men; eight of them formed the 
'nrrrapxia, containing 512 meii ; four of the last named formed the TeXus of the cavalry, including 
2048 nipn ; and two teXt] made the 'EiriTa) pa, comprising 4096 men. 

3. It may be remarked that among tlie LacedBemonians, the whole army was divided into fiopai 
which contained originally only 400 men each, hut afterwards a larger niunber, and variable. 

.Each /idpa consisted of four Xoxoi. The nevrriKoaTvi was one-halfof the Xoxoi ; and one-half 
of tile nevTriKoarvs was termed tvi^^jxoTia, including 25 men;- the latter body is said by some to 
have contained thirly-ttoo or thirty-six men. 
The earliest ancient works whicli treat expre>£ly of Grecian tactics are those of ArrWi \nd jElian ; cf. P. V. § 250, § 253. 

§ 143. The declaration of war usually began wi(!h a demand made by the 
injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Un- 
expected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified 
only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected 
for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred 
and inviolable. 

1 u. The heralds {Kfip-^Kcg) carried a staflT wcund with two serpents {KripvKswv), and 
were usually charged only withniessages of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies 
i~ph0u:) were accustomed also to threaten and to announce war. The power of ambas- 
sadors was limited in different degrees a! different times (cf § 102). The leagues or 

agreeip.ents entered into were either (1) a-o^cr], a treaty of peace or mutual cessation 
from injuries, called also a-wdmi, dpf]ur]-, (2) f-ipax'ia, a treaty of mutual defence; or 
(3) ff"ppaxia, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to 
aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when ihey themselves commenced 
the war. Such treaties were confirm.ed by the most solemn oaths, written upon 
tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged certain tokens 
or evidences {rrvp/SoXa) of the compact. 

2 7t. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war 
was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention v.'as also paid by the 
Greeks to omens and seasons. 

3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march before 
the seventh day, ivros ipSSpig, nor the Lacedcemonians until full moon. 

§ 144. In addition to what has already been said (§ 48) on the construction 
of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed 
according to circumstances. The Lacedaemonians, however, always adhered 
to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops 
were usually placed on the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre 
or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship 
of the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards 
were divided into the day-watches, ^v'kaxai r^/j-fpirai, and the night-watches. 
^uXazat vvxrfQLvai. The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called 
rtpo^v'kaxat. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called s<po8s-^a, and 
those who performed it, r(.f{)i7io7^oi, and the guard-house, 7tfpi7to%nov.- 

§ 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating ano 
f^rinlcing, immediately after which the commanders ordered them to action.- 



198 GRECIAN ANTIliUITlES. 

4 

When very near the point of enj^a^ing, the genprals addrcsiod the army ie 
animating speeches, which often produced great tflecis. 'I Ik n foilo.^euthe 
sacrifice, the vow, and the war-song {naiav j/x/^ar/ptos), a hymn to Mars. — 
The signs used in the field were either oTj^isla, regular ensigns and standards, 
or avfi^oT^a, particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon 
for the occasion. 

1 It. The special sijrnais, cvfM.GoXa, were either audible {(pcdviKa), such as watchwords 
(o\ivOf]jxaTa) ; or visible (biMra), such as nodding the head, waving the hand, shaking the 
armor, and the like {Trapaa-^vdhiMra). '1 he arjixzia or standards were of various kinds: 
some being merely a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear; o'hers having an 
image of a bird, animal, or other object. 1 he raising of the standard was a .'^ignal to 
commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal lor battb 
was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons appointed (7r/(/)d^.oi). Af- * 
terwards it was done by blasts of sound, for which shells (ko,\X«0 were first used, and 
then brazen trumpets {(TuXniyvsi) of several different kinds. 

2u. The Lacedaemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute; yef 
we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks v/as a? regular and as conform- 
able to music, as the ■! odern. Most of them were rather in the habit of rushing to 
battle with' impetuosity and clamor (dXaXay/id,-, diin)). 

§ 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, because 
the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor were the later Greeks, 
especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in the habit of laying regular 
sieges. The two principal points of proceeding in the siege of" a city, were 
the construction of the entrenchment around it, and the gathering and use of 
military engines about it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls 
of the city by ladders {i7tij5d6paL, xT^ifxaxf?) and to undermine their founda- 
tions. — An entrenchment around the city was called Tt^pitfLX'^'^^^^i or o-Ttotiv- 
Ztaiiibs, and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In the space 
between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the sentinels. Above the 
walls were turrets or pinnacles {irta^^n^), and after every tenth pinnacle a 
large tower was constructed, extending across from one wall to the other. The 
parapet of the wall was termed ^copa| or ^wpa'ztov. 

§ 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks {/xdyava. fivj^o-vai,) were 
of a comparatively late invention, and seem to have been introduced first about 
the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the principal was the ;^V?iu)i^»y, the 
testudo or tortoise ; so called because the soldiers were covered by it as a tor- 
toise by its shell. 

1 u. The testudo was of several kinds. The x^^ovti (TTpaTturM^ was formed by the 
soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over their heads in such a 
manner as to form a compact covering. It was also formed of boards, united and 
covered with metals ; this was either of a square f rm, as the x^^ >^i xwo"rp'f, which 
served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring 
up their military engines, or of a triangular form, as the x^^ ^^ op"f, for the protection 
of such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was 
called the yifpov, made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinece, and held by the sol- 
diers over the head. 

2 u. The Xf""/"" was a mound composed of various materials and raised very high, 
often above the besieged walls. — There were also moveable towers {jrvproi). made of 
wood and usually placed upon the x^''"]"" ; they were rolled on wheels and had often 
several stories, containirg soldiers and engines. — 'i he battering-ram {Kpiog) was a strong 
beam with an iron head {(p(io\r) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers 
thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that 
h could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered 
with a XfA'')i/)7. The KaTi-^eXrai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like 
upon the enemy; fnose which discharged arrows, being termed dIvlSeXeTs, and those 
which cast stones, \i6oP6\ol or nsTpoPoXoi. 

Dionysiiis Siculns (xx. 48, 86) speaks of the latter ensrines as sometimes capable of tlirovving 
stones of one hundred weiglit C\i6u06\oi TaXavriaTos), and even of tl.ree hundred weight {nerpo- 
36\oi r/)-,raXavrta,ros). 

3. Th3 'EXfTToXif was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of greater size 
lud force, driven with ropes an4 wheels. This name {'eXtnuXii, city-laher) was first ap- 
^hed by Demetrius Poliorcetes to a machine invented by him, in the form of a square 
Lower ; each side being ninety cubits high and forty-five wide ; resting on four wheels ; 
■'Uvided into nine stories, which each contained engines for throwing sf ears, stones, 
and various missiles ; manned by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 48. — The Tpfea^a 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. PUNISHMENTS. l^U 

were long irons wi:h sharp enas, and were the instruments chiefly used in earUej 
periods for demolishing the walls of a city. 

§ 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the thinjrs nnosl 
worthj of remark. Soldiers, armpd with various means of defending- them- 
selves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on. the walls of the city. 'The 
greater military engines were planted within the walls, and hurled arrows, 
stones, and pieces of timber upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers 
were opposed by counter-mines, and their- entrenchments and mounds were 
undermined. Their various engines were bri'ken. set on fire, or embarrassed 
In operation by different contrivances on the part of the besieg^ed. 

§ 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always tri,at the citizens 
tfnd the property in the same way. Somt times the building's were demolished, 
and all the inhabitants put to death, or at least those in arms, while the rest 
(ai;^jUaXurot., dopm^^wrot) were reduced to slavery. But sometimes favor was 
shown, and nothing but the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new 
settlers were planted in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demo- 
lished, it was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even 
cultivate the soil. 

§ 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, consisted 
partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which were the pro- 
perty of the conquered party. These, when taken from the slain, were termed 
rrx'.'iXa ; if from the living, "kd^vpa. The whole (eVapa) was brought to the 
commanHer-in-chief. who first took a large portion for himself, then assigned 
rewards to such as had distinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards 
distributed the remainder equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, 
a portion was set apart for the service of the g-ods, which was called dxpo(9u'ta.. 
The armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and liung up 
in their temples; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of the 
victors, when they designed to terminate their military career, 'rhank-offer- 
ings were also presented, and trophies (tpoxaia) erected, which were likewise 
dedicated to the gods; statues also and other monuments were raised to com- 
memorate viciories. 

An iiiscriptinn (irriypantj.a) wns often attached to the trophy, or nfferins presented to the god, 
or other inoiiiiuieiit, roniainiiii: tlie names of tlie conquerors and the conqtit^red, an acconiit ol" 
the .spoil*;, and someiiine.* of the occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especiillj' an 
oliv, was ofit'ii used for ilie purpose of a trophy, the euiblenis of victory bt-iii!: hntig upon it. — 
Alexander the Great, ahidintr by a law of the Mace'Nniians, never raised a trophy ; yet he erected 
other UMitiuiiients of hi.s successes; among them were altars to tlie gods, very broad and lofty 
A represeiiiation of the trupfPtim is given in Plate XXII. tig. 4. 

§ 151. 'I''here was a careful regard to order and discipline in the Greek 
armies, and various rewards nnd punishments were established. Among the, 
lewards were promotion to higher rank, conferring of garlands or other distinc- 
tions, ami also the funeral honors and the encomiums, which were bestowed 
on the brave warrior. At Athens public provision was made for the widows 
and children of those slain in battle, and also for those who were injured by 
wounds {ahvv(xtot). 'V\\e children of such as valiantly died were also honored 
sometimes with the first seats (TtpofSpLCu,) at the theatres. — The severest of the 
punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, avtofjio'hai. Such as 
refused to serve, dcfpaffurot, such as quitted their ranks, i.^ niotdxr at. and such 
as threw away their shields, /jt^aaTtcSf?, were subject to civil degradation. At 
Athens they were not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and 
were also fined in the court Helieea. In Sparta they were exposed to still 
deeper disgrace, u:hich extended even to their whole family ; it was so great 
that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afterwards. 

^ 152. The Greeks employed various means ibr conveying intelligence. They 
had a class of messengers or nuuters, called njxzpo'()6jxoi, who carried news and official 
commands; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much celebrated was the La 
cedten-joniaii aKorak^. This was a roll of white parchment or leather ('iff/^a, (/.(is-), wrap 
ped round a black stick, about four cubits in leng'h. The general always received a 
snck of ihis sort, of the same size with another kept by the inagist rates or govern 
meni. When any command or intelligence was to be conveyed, a sirip of parchrnerii 
was rolled on the statf, and on this was written what the person wished to comrnuni 



200 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES 

cate ; the strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own slick, and thus 
could read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible. 

§ 153. Before proceeding- now to notice the navaK affairs of the Greeks, we 

may allude to their method of passing rivers with their armies. It was usually 

by means of boats (azi^^cki) or small vessels joined together so as to form a sort 

of bridge (yf(j)i;pa), like that which the Persians under the command of Xerxes 

threw over the Hellespont. In order to hold these vessels fast, large baskets 

or boxes, filled with stone, were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the 

purpose of anchors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the 

greatest emergencies that they carried- forward with them these boats, having- 

taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by riseans of large 

casks and leathern bottles. 

Darius is said to have thrown a bridtre across the Thraciaii Bosphonis {Hemd. iv. 83, 85). Thf.^ 
of Xerxes over the Hellespont was built between A()ydos on the one side and Sesios on the 
other (Herod, vii. 36). 

§ 154. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been already mention- 
ed (§ 47). Vessels of war (iTtixcoTiot,, xu^Ttyj^ri) differed in their structure from 
the other kinds, especially from ships of burden {u'kxdhii. ^opt7]yoi) which were 
of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three 
benches of rowers, called i-ptj^pftj {triremes, cf. § 304), and hence this term- is 
often used to signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched, 
it was purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly, 
sometimes a whole fleet, was committed to the protection of a particular god. 
The ensign or standard {rtapdorjixov), by which one ship ,ab distinguished from 
another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had its own name, which 
was usually taken from its ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow, 

§ 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to the dif- 
ferent parts of a ship and the tackUiig. The Arabic numerals attached to some of the 
terms in the following description are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our 
Plate XXIII., indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwtlV s plan of 
a hexireme. 

1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the prow o\ front, rrpopa, utromov; the 
middle, or body, iiejoKoiXoi, yaarpa ; and the stern, irpvixva^ , d^pa. — 'I'he prow was more 
or less adorned, not only by the figures and images placed on it, but by the colors 
painted on it, from which were derived such epithets as pnXro-r^apioi, Kva'^ix,3o\ot, &c. '1 he 
sides of it were termed nrepa and Trapzial. The ordAo; was a long plank at the head of 
the prow, at the extremity of which some of the principal ornaments, dKpovia, dKpoaro. 
\ia^, were fixed. '1 he TrT.%ig^^ was a round piece of wood also attached to the prow, 
on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was sometimes called dfOa^ixog. '1 he 
Xrii'taKo; was the figure of a goose upon the prow ; near the water, according to the 
opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher part. The ep.[3o\oA^ was the lower 
portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war gallies was fitted to strike 
into the ships of the enemy. Behind this, and just below the (jr6\o^, was the irap-ficrri- 
lO'j or ensign, some image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the follow- 
ing parts; the Tpomi;^ or (Treipri, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut 
the waves, with the x^^^'^'^i^ara, wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the 
ship's bottom: ^iX/ci?, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, 
dvrXta; the Koi\r], hold (called also kvto;, and ydarpa), surrounded by ribs or planks 
rising from the keel, vopisTg or eyKotXia; the ^wj-r^jprj, or vtto] nara, rafters, or ropes, on 
the sides (jrXfpa^) of the ship from prow to stern; the toZxoi and b^dJK^a'^ seats lor the 
rowers situated on the sides one above another ; the rpnuara or dpOaXpiol^ openings 
through which the oars were put out ; the mKMfjia, a skin or the like, which lined the 
openings ; sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, called Tpd<pri^, a 

term applied also to the bulwark or upper part of it. The sterjst had ornamental 

images, called dKpo 'ia, in common with those on the prow, but termed distinctively, 
arj.,\a<TTaP. To the stern was also attached the otitpottjV', the tutela or safeguard of the 
ship. Its bow was termed sttktcuo^, and the planks composirg it, ncpiTOi^eia. The mid- 
dle of the stern was named, da'ivdioy. 1 he decks, I'/cpia, were covered parts at the 
prow and stern ; the Z,''yd were the rowers' seats in the middle and open parts. 

2. Some of the principal instruments {a-Kcvri) in navigating vessels may be mentioned 
here; they are included under two divisions, the wooden {oKcvri ^vXiva) and the hanoing 
^(TKEVT) Kpsjma-Td). The nriiViX'oy'^, I'udder, fixed not directly in the stern, but on the side of 
the ship, and near the stern.. In the later periods, two rudders were used, one being 
placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence vn^s dufinpjxvo) ; sometimes there were 
fuur, one on each, side of prow and stern. The parts of the rudder were ota^. (pBdfi, 
•rw'yiov, ,iuyw, Ka/iu^. — The ivuti, dyK<)pa, anchor; first a stone bored in the midr'le, or 



PLATE XXni. 




202 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

a basket filled with stones; afterwards made of iron with teeth, 6h6v-z;, fastening it tii 
tlie earth; the largest ot a ship's anchors was called iVpii, and hence fi'iWtiv liyK-pai 
hpav obtained its proverbial sense, to resort to the lust refuge. 'I'he cables attached to 
the anchors, were Trsianara, or K.l/jLrjXoi; ropes for tovviiig were termed [tv^'a-a, 'oXko'i; 
those fcr binding a vessel to the shore, Trp •ixymia. — The K'OTrat and iperixoi, oars, having a 
broad part covered with metal (-Ajd;), and hung upon pieces of wood called (j<a\>xoi, by 
leathern thongs, rp'tmi. — The tordf'^, mast, fixed in a hole {ixzcroc^ni), in the middle of the? 
ship; capable of being taken down and put in a case {'urro]6xr}) ; having several parts, 
as Trrtpni, rpiX'jXo;, mio^iit «)', ^iop'iKWj, iKpioj^ ))\aKaTr\. The Kspaiai, or Kcpara^^, were th*; 
crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast ; the (kpoKspaia were the extremiiies of the yards. 
Tlie to-ria'", sails (called also d36vai, /ippufa), including particular ones distinctively named, 
03 cTrt^piTj;, inizen-sail; dK'tno^, main-sail {Ik'itio> also signifies a small vessel, like a pi- 
rate's); iiprt-//') ', top-sail ; ^oXw;/, sprit-sail. — The'rppa,^£ix^.\io^, ballast. — The/^oXr?, the lead 
for sounding. — 1 he kojtoI, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The d-o;Jidpa:, 
bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called aUo 
£7i(/? (Spat and d/a!3'Spa') — The term oVXa was applied to the rigging generally. — The 
terms axov/ia, k'iXoi, and rorrda are commonly considered as synonymous, and as signi- 
fying the cordage ; including iTrirovoi, mykg^^, npoiroSzs, inao tpiai, npo-o^oi'^^, made at first 
of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax; hemp, and the like. But Bockh considers the 
axci-^i-a as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to Vv^hich the anchor was attached 
and by which the ship was fastened lo the land; and the ro-sla as designating the 
lighter ropes, including Ka\'.'y)ia or KaXoi, [jx'uTsg, Ktpooxoi, vn'-pai, the rope called dyKOiva, 
the xaXivo;. E-iro'oi, &c. The term vjoy'<ixira has generally been inter[)reted as signi- 
fying hoards or planks covering the outside of a ship ; bivt ii is shown by the inscrip- 
tions found in the Piraeus and published by Bockh, that the vTio<^-opaTa were ropes whict 
ran in a horizontal direction around the vessel from the sicrn to the prow, and were 
intended to keep the fabric together ; and it would seem that such ropes were taken on 
board when a vessel sailed, to be used if necessary ; the expres.'iion in A,cts xxvii. 17. 
wro>yw)^r£j T) -Xo'io'', probably reierstothe act of putting these ropes about the vessel. 

See T. D. Wovhsy, on Acts xxvii. 17, in the Bill. Hepcs. Sec. Series, vol. viii. p. 405. 

3 21. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part, 
was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks, spiSjXa^^, were long and 
high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the 
enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, 
enio-ikg. jutting out, to protect the ship from the 'beaks of the enemy. '1 he war-ves- 
sels usually had wooden decks or coverings {<aTahp'-ynaTa^^) on which the soldiers 
stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both 
sides {Tz-pi-ppavpara, napafpvpLara), to protect them from the 'waves and from the enemy's 
missiles. The usual sign of a war-vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the 
mast. , 

4. The beaks are seen in Plate XXIIl. fig. A, 13 ; and also in fig. b, which is a prow taken from 
a bas-relief at Rome, and whirh shows tlie ensitrti behind thetn. and the acrostidia above it. In 
fig. o, from an ancient coin, we have another prow., which has a trophy erected upr-n it. In fig. c, 
which is from the scniptures on the colunui of Anton ine (cf. P. IV. $ 18S. 2), is a prow of anotlier 
form. In fisr. 4, we see a niercltaut-yesse\^ managed by oars or sails ; in fig. 5, a war-vessel \\ ith 
oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. 

The names of 'he various [wrls of a ship may be foun I, wih ex[ilanations of every thing relating to this subject, in /. Siheffer, 
Diss de Varietjtt: naviurn. Ufisal. 1654 ; contained als'i in T Grmii/vii 1 hesaurus, &c! vol. xi. as cited § 13. — See also, by the same, 
Comment, de uiilitia nivali veterurn. Ups. 1654. 4 — Levny, Li marine des anciens Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inner, vol. xxxviii. 
p. 54 J — Pvlter's A\q\\ Gisp.c bk. ii cli. 14. — Rubinspn'shk. iv. ch. 14 — A. Jul. Arcbeologie Navale. Far. mo — A.Uo H Iwell, 

»nd Le Ruy, as cilt-il ^ 156. On the Altic navy especially, A. Bockh, Urkunden Uber ilas Seeuesen des Atlisi.-hcn Slaates. B-jil. 

1840. 

§ 150. Oriw-jnally the employments of the rowers and the combatants were 
not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions of both. In later 
times there was a division into three classes; (I) the rowers or oarsmen, fpsVat, 
xcoTtjyXarat,, who were also distinguished by specific names, according to the 
rank of their bench, and their work and pay; (2) the sailars, vavtai, who attend- 
ed to viU tlie other proper duties of the ship; (3) the ninrines, fTttidaVat, wh'j 
were armed like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable. 

(iowers in the upper tier of benches, or the poriiou of benches highest above the 
water ("p'l.o;) were called^panrai ; those in the middle, s'^yXrai (I'rom suyO; those in 
the lower lier or portion, SaXa/iFra:. The rowers were also disiinguished, as those 

near the prow, n-piicwro'; and iho.=e near the stern, tTr.VwTo . (3f the sailors, some 

(dp/iSi'toTrti) had the care of thci sails ; others (t^o; o/Jira ) went alof on the ropes to look 
out; ohers (uro-o.'airai) were to supply the seamen with wha'ever was needed. 

There have been various th -ories to explain the manner in which the banks of rf)wers in *he 
ancient galleys were arranged, in the different classes of ships termed Totfipeig, TCTpfjocts, t£- -»- 
ccii. Sue. trireme, qundrireine, qiiiviinireme, ^'c. — The most common idea formerly whs. that liie 
Wnclie? were pi iced on'* above another. But there were galleys of seven, twelve, fifteen, ai.i' 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. KAVAL OFFICERS. 20l{ 

sixteen banks nf oars; Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty hRnks. If the benches were plamd 
diroctly above each other, the oars in the upper heiiches tniist have been so Ions as to be wholly 
nseless. — Another solution is, that tlie hanks were ranged in one cfiniitiiiniis line ahmg ihe side 
of the galley; in a trireme, the first hank being in her hows, the sei ond in her middle oi waist, 
the thini in her siern. Hut such an arransrement would require a hii<;e length in the vessel o' 
forty hanks, or even twelve ; besides which. It is stated tiiat ihe o.irs of a galley vvi^re not all of 
the same length. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the suggestion th:ii tiie galley 
received its denoininatioti from the number o' men pullitrg at the satne oiir : the irirerne won.* 
have three at one oar; the qniiiquireme, five, &c. — Another .-iigueslion is. iliai the banks rose, 
one over another to the number <if five or seven, theTowers in the higlier hanks lieinif chfiki^red 
in qiiincuttx with those in llie lower; and that if a galley was said to he f any greater number, 
the rating was only by tlie number of men employed at an oar; e. g. in ihe galley offi riy hanl s 
there would he fve tiers with twelve men at each oar of the highest hank, ten at the ne.\l, and 
Bf) on until the h)west, which would have four men, to make forty in all. The engravings of 
fig. B, in our Plate XXIII. are two views, exhibiting such an arrmgement ; the upper one is a 
front view, and the lower a sectional view. — Other schemes have heen proposed which need not 
be mentioTied. The latest is thai of Mr. Hulwell, of Edinburgh, which is i bought by m:iny tu have 
set the mailer at rest. He supposes a vessel in the origiiml form h ivins; one hank of ten oars 
arranged horizontally ; let these be divided into two hanks of five oars each, and raiieed ob- 
liquely, and they will require but about half as much lennth ; iliis construction, a<coidiiig to 
his conjecture, is the bireme ; a trireme would have three f>f these ublitiue ascents or banks, each 
bank having five o:trs; and thus a vessel might be built with any number of banks by only 
increasing iis length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, tlian in 
a bireme. In Plate XXIll. fig A, we have a view of a liexireme, or galley of six banks of oars, 
on his scheme; the Arabic numbers, ".^1, 22, 23, designate Ihe i)orti()n of the b.inks occupied 
respectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned 

See /. Hclwed. Essay on the War Ga.le>s fjf tlie Aiicietit-. 1 oml. l-2b. 8 — Dc Lt Rcy, *ur Its navires employes |)ar les anciens, 
&c. ill the Mnn. del Itislitul. C I a.sse de Lit. el Beaux Jlrls, vol. i. 479; li. 141, 153.— tit Boyd's td. oi Potttr. p. 526. as ciieJ § 13. 

§ 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the 
followina; gopa-ra 2/ai;aa;v:a, very long spears; Spirtavoi-, aspieoe of iron formed 
like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cut the sail-ropes of 
the hostile ship; ^^Ip aib'/jpa the grappling iron; apTtaysg, large iron hordes at- 
tached to the mast of a vessel in such a manner that l)eing thrown into the ene- 
my's ships they seized and raispd them up into the air. An instrument, called 
from its form the dolphin (6f?./|)i,i/), was often used ; it was made of iron or lead, 
and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violei.ce into an 
adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it. — The means of defence against these 
instruments was to gnard the ship by a strong covering of hides. 

§ 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained 
to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained 
to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, or admiral, was called i-avapj^oj, 
sometimes at67.apxoS'> or arpat'/jyo^; often there were several in equal com- 
mand, often there was but a single one. The- duration of his authority 
was decided by the people, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. 
Next to him were the commanders of individual ships. ■rp'->;pap;>;ot ; the Lace- 
daemonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called tTtt- 
rsto'kfv^. (2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the, 
ships and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- 
ing; the o.px^'X.v^fpvrf/ii, who had the care of the v^hole fleet; the xv^fpvvjtrii^ 
who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept the helm; and the 
rtpcopfvj, or Tfpapar'^j, the next in command, having the care of every thing be- 
longing to the forepart of the ship. 

There were also, in the second class, the following: TiAj]nai\r\;, the musician, whose 
rotes cheered the rowers and regulated the sirokes of their oars; vsXe o-dk, who gave 
the word of command to them ; ro'.xapxo;, who governed the rowers oti one side ; vn-- 
■pvXaKCi, employed in guarding the" ship from rocks and other dangers ; raft a;, who 
superintended the food; fcr^apsu;, who attended to the ilres ; ^oyuriii, who kept ihp 
ship's accounts. . 

§ 159. Tn the beo-innino- of a sea-fioht they souo-ht first to lighten the ship of 
all superfluous and unnecessiry burdens; and to render sails, mast, and every 
thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible. 
Then the most favorable position and order of battle was selected, accorilinw 
to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gcds, and 
the commapders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate theii 
men. The signal for the onset was now given ; usually done by hanging a 
shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the vuvapxos'^ while il.is sig- 
nal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar lo that 



204 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of a siege; the ships heing drawn up in the form of a circie or semicircle ."i 
letter V. 

§ IGO. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured vessels. 
All the cities w^hich were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the suc- 
cessful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary 
to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for 
that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards 
consecrated to the gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the 
battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes 
adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxpwta, axpcor-^pij.), 
of the captured ships. — The most common punishments in the naval service 
were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the 
water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, avaviJ.d2;;oi, 
were, at Athens, punished with disgrace (drt^ai-a) together with their posterity. 
Deserters, "kBiTtovavtai, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. 

IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 

§ 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same 
order as in speaking of the earlier period (§ 51 — 60), and begin with the subject 
of food. In later times, when riches more abounded, the food was less simple 
than before; the Lacedaemonians maintained longest their strictness and fru- 
gality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations, 
and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more culti- 
vated and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent moderate^ 
ly, owing, perhaps, to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Wa- 
ter was the common drink, with which they were accustomed to mingle wine. 
The wine sometimes r(?ceived an addition of myrrh {olvo^ fivpljt,vi,trj^,) or of barley 
meal (oti'oj aTtyjTi^ttio^ivo^). 

The term employed to designate a drinking cup, KparPip, is commonly derived from 
Kei)a(jda9ai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Pot- 
ter s\d.\e5, \hfiX no cen^m \wo^ov\.\on. yfos ohsexwedi informing this mixture. A very 
common division of wines was into the TroKv^popoi or strong wines, bearing a large addi- 
tion of water, and d\iyo(p6po', weak wines. To driiik unmixed wine, .aKpaTomdv, was 
described as synonymous with Y.vQi(jTiTnt.Xv,lo drink like a Scythian. — A common Ho- 
meric epithet for wine, is aiOop • sometimes yspotmin;. (Cf Horn. II. i. 4G2, iv. 259.) — • 
The swefi, unfcrmented juice of the grape {musfnm) was termed yXevKog. That 
which flowed from the clusters by merely their own pressure was called Trp6x"pLa. Un- 
fermented wine, inspissated by boiling, bore the name of 'k^^rtixa. — There were various 
sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek 
wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any distinct account, is the Ma- 
ronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 
249). The Framnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its 
name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the 
Lesbian, Chiun, and Thosian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. 
The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidiis and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The 
Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. '1 he Greeks also 
used wines imported from diflerent places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind was 
brought from Byhlos in PhcEnicia; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria 
in Egypt, was highly valued. 

CiiTipare § 331 h. — '<'ep Henderson's History nf Ancient and Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4. — This work is adorned with several 
beautiful illuslraticins taken from antiques, and relating lo ti.e use c^f wine. 

§ 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, dxpa-rtrr^a, 
o.pintov^ the time of wh'ch was not fixed, and a main meal, hnKvov, which was 
regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, h^cktvov 
or ifjTttpiafxa, and an after-dish or supper, 6op7toj. 

Robinson remarks that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not 
consider the <:iKiv6' as a separate meal from the J-prr.?? ; while others think that the 
(Jieeks bad but two meals, a Jay, the aparov and ^'p-oi;. It seems certain, that apia-ov 
was finally used to denote the dinner (that is, the meal taken not far from the middle 
of the day), and k'lTrvo-i the stepper, the latter being I he principal meal. 

" There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at 
daybreak, and soent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the 



PLATE XXIV. 




17 



205 



206 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tribunal, and those en;ployed in 
agricuhure, manulactures, or commerce, engaged in their different occupations. At 
mid-day, the more weahhy citizens, who by that time had commonly finished then 
serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few 
hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palasstra, or in walking through the delight- 
ful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus ond Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing 
with each other in the forum (agora) the interests of the state, the conduct of the 
magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the 
Athenians sometimes played K^^fSeia and Trerrsfa; two games, the first of which resem- 
bled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — " During the day, the 
Athenians either took no food or only a shght repast in private. At sun-set they sat 
down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening 
10 society and amusement, and often continued to a late hour in the night." 

§ 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on 
festival days; afterwards they became very common. They were of two sorts : 
the sL^aTiLvyj, given by a single person, and the tpaj^oj, provided at the expense 
of the party present. Entertainments of the latter kind were generally the most 
frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling; such as were invited free of 
expense, as poets, singers, &c., were called aavixjSo^ot; the contribution of each 
other guest was termed ct,af3o?t>}, xataj^D'hrj. — The marriage feast, yu/jLOi, is some- 
times considered as a third sort. — There were also public entertainments for -a 
whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called cvo^itia, Ttavhat^iai^ hdTiva hri^oaia^ 4)pa.- 
rptpca, &c. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the 
state. 

§ 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and 
anointed. The hands were also again washed {vi^aadat) between the successive 
courses, and at the close of the feast {a.7tovi-\a6dai). In the early times the 
g«ests sat at table (ef. § 52); in later times they reclined, but not always. The 
couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each 
one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a 
single couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank, 
although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks attached a certain 
idea of sanctity to the table and the rites of the table. 

Three couches, kXI ai, were usually placed round the table, rpdns^a, one on each 
side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants; hence originated the word rpiK^l- 
viov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, arpcoi/ara, and had pillows, npoaKscpa- 
^ata, for the guests; they were often very costly, being highly ornamented with ivory 
and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining on the same couch, the first 
lay on the uppermost part, with his legs extended behind the back of the second, 
whose head was near the bosom of the first. See ^^^ 329. 2. — The tables were made 
of wood, highly polished (^otd), evioug) ; in the later periods, exceedingly costly, 
adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images. 

§ 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the SttTti/ov), the first course, rtpo- 
•ro^a, 8sL7tvov Ttpooc^tov, consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs, 
oysters, a mixture of honey and wine {olvo/xeu), and the like. Then came 
the chief dish, more substantial and costly, xe^a'kr] bstTivov. Afterwards the 
desert, 8evtipa TpUTtf^a, consisting of various sweetmeats, furnished with great 
splendor in times of luxury, and called e7iidsi,7tva,ix£ta86pTtLa, &c. 

1. The most common food among the Greeks is said to have been the na<a, a kind 
of sol' cake prepared in various ways, of the flour of barley or wheat. Among the 
vegi'iables that were eaten, were mallows {ixahixi). lettuce {SrpidaD, cabbages {paq)ai>oi), 
beans {Kvapoi), and lentils ((paicaX). '1 he sausage {(pvaKn) was a favorite article. Fish 
<Ji^jov) also became a favorite dish. 

2 u. In all entertainments it was customary first to offer some of the provisions to 
<he gods, especially to make an oblation from the liquor. — On cheerful occasions, the 
guests were clothed in white, and crowned with garlands. 

3. At entertairmenfs connected, with the festivals of the gods, the garlands worn 
were formed ol the leaf or flower sacred to the particular god honored on the occa- 
sion. At other entertainments they were composed of various'sorts, according to the 
season of the year, and the tasfe and circumstances of the parties. The rose, being 
an emblem of silence, wa» often placed above the table, to signify that what was 
there said or done should be' kept private ; hence the phrase vm p66o,', sub rosa. 

§ 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as follows: the 
^vurtorttap;t)5' ^l^ief n^anager, w ho was either the maker of the feast (o £0-ftarwp\ 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS, CONVIVIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 207 

or one appointed to that place, called also rpartf^o.-totoj, ap;>^tT'pJjc?vi,i'o?; tht Bo^f 
Tievi;, whose husiness was to see that the laws and rules of such entertainments 
were preserved, and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the 
AatT'poj, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and "larofest 
portions were given to the most honored guest; and the'Oivnxooc, who dis- 
tributed the drink, and were heralds {xrjpvxss), youths (zovpoc) often of r\ob\f 
birth, or servants {8ov7mi,). 

In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beautiful slaves, 
to perform the last mentioned office; for such ones extravagant prices were paid; and 
a distinction was made between the vspo^jopoi. who served ihe water, and the du'o\6oi, 
who poured the wine, and were younger. When waiting at table, they w^re richly 
adorned in person and dress. 

§ 167. The drinking vessels were generally large, often very rich and costly; 
they were frequently crowned with garlands. 

1. The KfaTfjp was the vessel in which the wine was "nixed wiih the water and from 
which the cups were filled. Among the various cups used were the kvXiI or K^XiGKr), 
the ((lidXn. the p'lron, the Kapxfjmoy, the Kni>Qapo;, the fea,% &c. The ri)a9ot are described 
as a sort of ladles used for conveying the wine from the crater to the cup. 

2. It was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in the order 
of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person 
Mamed, which was termed -po-ivEiv ; while the act .of the person, who received the cup 
and drank the rest of its contents, was termed a^n-po-i-'En;. It was also customary to 
drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling ihem by 
name. Thiee craters were usually drank to the gods. ea>'h one to a particular god; 
as Kpan'-p 'Ef/ioi) ; 'Kparrp Jitdf SwT-fjpof. — Someiimes the guests contended who should 
drink the most ; and prizes were awarded to the conquerors. Some melancholy ex- 
cesses are recorded; as, tor instance, the case of Alexander, who in this way lost his 

life. Singing (/xoAtt/)), instrumental music, and dancing (opx^TriV), were accompani 

ments of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymn? to gods or 
heroes; subsequently songs and dances of a wanton character were introduced. The 
most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed o-zcdXia. 

Athenxvs, L. x c. 9, 10. Cf. jElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41. — Respecting the o-xroAta, see P. V. § 27. 

3. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate in various 
sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced ; but in the laier ages, less 
violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the KorrafJoi 
seems to have been a favorite amusement. There were various forms of this game, in 
all of which the. chief object was to throw wine from a goblet into another vessel in the 
most skillful manner. 

See Gedoyn, Plaisirs de la table chez tes Grecs : in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 54. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev vol. xxiv. ~. 421. 

• For details respecting tlie rottabus in particular. Rofihi^on. Arch. Grjec. bk. v. ch. 21. p. .524 — GrnAlech. Uber den kclfaboi 

der Griechen, in his .Sntiquansche Verwuhe, I.pz 1800. — F. .Tacobf. (Iber den kotlabos, in IViela»d's Altisches Musputti. 

On the whole subject nf Grecian meals and enler'ainmenis, set Ri bhison. Arch Graec. bk. v. ch. 17-21. ^-X Curnaritts, Ue Con- 
Tiviis Graecorum, in Gronovius, vol. i.v. — Athens^is, Deipnosophists (cf. P. V. § 123). 

On the affairs of private life generally. If. Becker, Chaiicles; cf. § 13. 

4. Frequently there were entertainments called u'^-oaia (drinkins-parties). at which 
conversation and discourses were expected to form the principal amusement ; although 
the various games common at other emenainments were not excluded. The propound- 
ing of riddles {alviyiiara or yplpi) was much practiced. 

See P. IV. § 69. — Eichtnlach, as there ci\ed. —Becker^s Cliaricles. 

§ 168. The hospitality practiced by-the early Greeks (cf. § 57) reiriaincd 
customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of 
being hospitable; the Athenians were termed ^i.7.6^(-vol; but the Spartans were 
less courtpous to strangers. Hospitality was viewed as. a religious duty, and 
several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and lo 
avenge all injuries done to them. 

1 u. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (vEr-j 'IX;) before 
the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent frieiidsbip. The alliance contracted by 
mutual ho-^pitality {-pu^evia, to huo-pa-f^o ) was as sacred as that of consansuiiiity. The 
parties of en exchanged tokens of it {(n<n'io\n) in friendly gif's il^'ta, S-S'ipa, ^ciKa), which 
Were carefiilly preserved and handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly ap- 
pointed, called -potei'oi. whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public 
errand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the public 
B]>ectacles and festivals. 



iiUS GRECIAN irVriQUITIES. 

2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic. De 
Oivin. ii. 68. — 7'he term navioxcTov (caupona) designated an inn. 

Simon, on the hospitality of the ancients, in the Memi. de V^cad. des Inscr. vol. iii. p. 41.—/'. W- Ullrich, De Proxenia. Berl 
1^22.— Zell, Die Wirthshauser d. A\ten.—Stochmann, De Popinis. 

§ 1()9, The dress ef the Greeks did not underg-o any very important changes; 
at least the names used in the first period were still applied to the principal gar- 
ments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored 
white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to 
dress, purple was the most esteemed. 

1 ji. Coverings for the feet {moSfiixara, ncSi^a) vi'ere used very early, but not universally: 
they were of various forms. Hats {ttlXoi, mXia, KiXiSta) were first introduced at a later 
period, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather. 

2. The shoes were tied under the soles ot the feet by thongs, lixdi/Tcg • hence the terms 
vrroSeTf and vrruXveiv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The foliowmg were some 
of the varieties; dpPvXai, large and easy shoes, wliicli came up to the ankle; (the term 
dfj0vXr) is also applied to an appendage of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which 
the driver thrust his foot to assist him in driving); 0XavTai, shoes worn chiefly in the 
house ; didiiaft^a, shoes common to men and women ; efxParai, shoes used by comedians; 
Kodopvoi, shoes used by tragedians, buskins ; Kajiparivai, coarse shoes worn by peasants ; 
KprniSsg, a kind of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; Xokcj- 
i/iKol^ djx^tKXauk; , Spartan shoes of a red color; TrepciKai, shoes oi a white color, generally 
worn by courtezans ; TrepiPaptdeg, shoes worn by women of rank ; advSaXa, shoes anciently 
peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole ot the toot. 

In our Plate XXIV. are illnstralions of various forms of ancient coverings for tlie feet and 
legs. Several, marked by the letter a, a.re from Mexican monuments ; those malrked b and c, are 
said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and ^ are from Egypnan remains ; e, g, ?', /:, /, ?«, ;?, and 5, are Greek 
and Rowan sandals ; A: and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them ; q having 
sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army marching with 
them must make a confused vnise ; cf. Rosevvivller, Schol. in Vet. I'est. Isai. ix. 5); /, n, 0, are 
Dacian; h,j, v, are Persian; r is llie Turkish slipper made of morocco. 

3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (cf ^ 44). The -rrXXog seems to 
have been a sort of skull-cap of felt, being of a coitical iorm ; varying, however, in 
elevation ; but alv/ays without a brim. A broad-brimmed hat, termed Triracrof, was 
used by young men : it is seen in Plate XXIV. fig. 3. " Travellers among the Greeks 
wore the chlamys, sword, and petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes thrown back 
on the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their 
money in their girdles." 'I'he Kamia was similar to the Trhaao;. with a brim turned 
upwards. Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of 
them were the following; «/i7rn(, a fillet, with which the hair was tied, forming on the 
forehead a frontal, which was oiten made of gold, and ornamented sometimes with 
precious stones; KaXimrpa, nveil; Kpri^nvoy, a covering which came down from the head 
to the shoulders; KCKpvipaXog , a net inclosing the hair; piirpa, a sort of cap or turban. The 
term jxiTpa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the vwpa^. A 
form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed aT£(i>dpri v-4/rjXii. 1 he oppioi 
was a sort of necklace, an ortiament much worn, and often very cosily (cf § 338). The 
women frequently had also ear-rings, IppuiTa, 'eXiKCi, iviiTia, iXXv0:a. — Among the Athe- 
nians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments called rtTTiytq. 

The term Kopri designated the hair of the Jiend generally ; the word ^p((, the general term for 
hair, is used in the same sense ; biu there were distinctive terms desiirnating peculiar properties 
of the hair, or peculiar modes of arranging it : as sOeipa, a head of hair careiiilly dresst^d ; ;\;a£r»?, 
long flowing hair, like the mane of a horse ; ttokAs, the hair when combed ^;!ld dressed ; (po/St), 
the hair in disorder, as when a person is in fear; /c<5pff(7, ttie hair on the top of the head; Kopvn 
3oi. the hair of women when drawn up all round the head ami fastened in a bow on the top; 
Kpo'j/SvXog, the hair of men in the same f.ishion ; the Athenians used the tItti^ in fastening the 
bow ; paXXoq. curly hair like wool ; Kepag, hair combed up from the temples so as to ajipear like 
horns ; KiKiwoi, hair in ringlets, called also nXoKapoi. 

4.71. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, anunJer-garment of wool, 
\it'w, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was trussed up by a rich 
girdle (v^'i"?) ; in some cases it was fastened froiu the shoulders by costly buckles or 
clasps {-KEpthui, nopna ). Over this garment the men wore a mantle or robe, w hich was 
long (/ftpof, ifiiTioi^) as worn by the more respectable ; while the lower classes used a 
shorter kind (x^aXva). There was also another sort of short mantle, \Xapv;, worn chiefly 
by soldiers. The women generally wore over the tunic a robe {IpuTw.'), rather short, 
and over this a broad veil or outer robe, TTorXog, with which they could cover also the head. 

5. The X'""" is represented as being of two kinds, the Doric and the Ionic. The Doric cor- 
responded to the descri()tion atrove given, bf'ing of woolen stufl', short, and without sleeves. The 
ionic is described as long, sonTetimes reaching the feet (Tror^i'fpr;?), made of linen, with wide 
sleeves (/cdpui). — The ipdriou or (/)«pof was always a reclan^iular (liece of cloth, exactly or nearly 
square ; made of wool most conunonly, but also of cotton, and of flax ; usually all of one soior 
'•V»<Jxi'"='''')» sometimes var'egated (vuiklXov) and embroidered; sometimes ornamented with 9 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. COSTUME. BATHIN'? 209 

fringe. It was often used to spread over beds and couches ; to cover the body in sleep ; to form 
a sort of carpet ; to serve for an awning: or curtain. 

Of coverings for the body, called in general eadfii, ecrdrnxa, and £(//«, there were many varietie* 
and forms, besides those named above; as, Pairri, SKpOepa, a shepherd's gannent, of skins; 
iyKQuffoiin, a cloak used by shepherds and servants; ETrw/iij, a short garment for female^s, which 
was thrown over the shoulders; E^w/^tf, a slave's garment, having only one sleeve (,cf $ 09); 
£(j>£fT~pii, a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats ; ^wtrrpoi/, a girdle appropriate for v\ omen ; 
^epiarpiov, a. thin garment for summer; KaruvaKri. a slave's robe, bordered ai the bottom vviik 
sheepskin ; Xfj^os, a garment common to both sexes, suitable for warm weather; (rruXr,, a long 
robe reaching to the heels; arpocjiiov, a kind of ker&hief worn by women over the bosoni {T-rjdo- 
S^a/jiog); Tp[0u)v, Tpi/3a)viov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by pliil sophers and poor p.-rsous ; 
raivia. a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast ; used also to sianify an orna- 
ment for the head ; (paivoXris, a cloak without sleeves for cf)ld or rainy weather; X'^"'"?' •* fi"e 
thin robe. The iptXXiov was an ornament worn, by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands ; 
a bracelet or armlet (%Xt(?oji/. diJicpiSea). The nepirrKe^iq was probably an avklet, an ornamental 
ring worn to decorate the leg ; frequently represented in the paintings of Greek fiirures found at 
Pompeii; yet the word is sometimes translated drawers, feininalia. The dva^vpides were a sort 
of pantaloons (braccce) worn by the Gauls, Sarmatians, and others, both in Europe and in Asia, 
but not by the Greeks. Robinson's Arch. Gr. p. 511-546. 

Our Plate XXV contains several engravings illustrating ancient apd Oriental female costume. 
In fig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the vail; similar to it is the vail in fig. ^, which is 
taken from the French work L'Egijpte, &c., and represents an Egyptian spinning; anotlier form 
appears in fisr. d, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of n)uffler ; in 
w, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern vail, but was attached to a 
ribin or chain passing mund the forehead and joined hy a clasp above the eyes. In fig. m, is a 
Grecian lady with a peculiar head-dress, somewhat resembling the spiral curl of the murex shell 
from which the Tyrian purple was said to be obtained. Oth.er head-ornaments appear in fig. h, a 
Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fis. i, another Grecian 
in a funeral dress. The vet above mentioned is seen in fig. 4, of Plate XXIV; in fig. 7, of the 
same Plate is a form of the turban, like the crescent-shaped tiara or diadem s<inietimes seen on 
representations of Juno. In these fii^ures we also s-ee the tunic fastened to the shoulders by 
clasps ; in fig. 4, it is without sleeves, as in fig. h, Plate XXV. This fisure, k, shows also the robe 
called peplos, which is seen also in fig. k, said to represent a Grecian lady in full costume of the 
.olden style; an outer garment like tbe pe|)tos of the Greeks is seen likewise in fig 6, which 
represents a Cairo dancer, and in fig. c, which shows an oriental silk robe thrown over the head 
and arms. In fisr. e and/, we have two female Bacchantes; their costume, like that of the musi- 
cian, fiL'. h, appears to be highly ornamented ; one holds the thyrsus and a wine cup, probably 
the culix (cf $ 167. 1); the other appears to be playing with a sort of castanets. In fig. n, is a 
representation of an Egyptian princess from the palace at Karnac ; it exhibits a slight under nress 
and a close robe in slanting folds open in front, the whole scarcely concealing the form ; it may 
illustrate the Cnan vestments, or woven wind, of the ancients. A nearly transparent robe is also 
seen in fig. o, which is an Egyptian priestess holding in her right hand. a sistruni, and in her left 
some mytliological image probably pertaining to the worship of Isis. 

The following is an incidental remark of Chaieauhriand respecting the ynattrtnls of ancient clothing. " My host laugi.ed at ('■e 
faces that I made at the wine and honey of Attica : bnt, as some compersation for the disappointment, he desireu ue to take noiice 
of the dress of the female who waited on us. It was the very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the h. .i.-mlal aid undu- 
lating folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpei.dicnlar folds which marked the skirl of the tunic. The c.iarse 
stuff of which ttiis woman's dress was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for, to judge from sculpture, the stuffs of the aurienta 
were much thicker than ours. It would be impossible to form the large sweeps observable in antique draperies with the mu^lim 
and silks of modern female attire ; the gauze of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists denominated wuven whid, vverti never 
imitated by the chisel." Travels in Greece, &c. p. 137. (N. Y. ed. 1814). 

Respecting the material of the vestments of Cos, see § 335. On the question concerning the use of silk among the Greeks, c(. 

Anthori's Lempriere, under the word Serei. On the use of cotton, E. Eaiiies, History of Cotton Manufacture. Lond. i?36 8. 

(chap, ii.) 

Respecting the costume generally, see a brief account in North Amer. Rev. for July, 1838. p. 148. — Mon^ez, Sur habillemens de» 
ancienB, (Gr. and Rom.) in the Mem. de VInstitxtt, C 1 asse iVHist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 2ll.—Fosbruke's Encyclop. p. 610, 919, 
giving some illustrations drawn from the Hamilton vases. — A. Rubeneus, De Re Vcstiaria Veterum. Ant. 1665. 4 ; also in GraruiiM, 
vol. vi. — G. Ferrario, Del Costume Antico e Moderno di tutti i Popoli. Milan, 1829. 18 vols. fol. exhibiting in vols. v. and vi. the 
costume of the Greeks. — Bardoii, Hope, &c. cited § 197. 3. 

6. The Athenian women seem to have paid much attention to the adorning of their 
persons. " They painted their eye-brows black, and ajipHed to their faces a layer of 
ceruse or white lead, with deep tints of rouge. They sprinkled over their hair, whicii 
was crowned with fiowers, a yellow-colored, powder." At the toilet they used mirrors 
(KaroTrrpa), commonly made of polished metals; sometimes of the length of a person's 
body. 

The Bride, in Plate XXIV. fig. 4, holds a mirror in her right hand.— See Menard, Sur les miroirs des anciens, in the Men,, di 
PAcad. des Inscr. xxiii. 140.— Cf. Class. Joum. xvi. 152.— Cay'iu, Rccueil d'Au'iquites, vol. iii. p. 331; vol. v; p. i'3.—Bof'iser, 
^ssengemlLlden, iii. 46. 

§ 170. The custom of frequent bathinar and anointintr continued to the latesrt 
period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for cleanliness and vij/oi 
of body. Public baths became at length very common, even in 'he cities 
which had not previously admitted them. They were furnished with several 
distinct rooms for undressing, for bathing, for anointing, &c., which were 
named from their appropriate uses. 

1. The public baths were furnished with various accomodations for convenience and 
pleasure. Among the separate rooms were the following : the dTTn6<jTt}pioi', in which 



210 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

those who bathed put off their clothes ; the v-rroKavirroi/, the " sweating room," or room 
ior taking vapor baths; the pixTTTiaTt'iptov, lor the hot bath; the Xourpd;^, Tor the cold bath; 
the (iXanrfipioi/, the anointing room. 

This account of the rooms is according to Robinson, Arch. Grsec. p. 506. — For a more full 
account of ancient baths, see P. IV. $241 b. 

2«. The various ointments used had different names according to the modes and 
materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this respect, 
that it was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Sparta the selhng of perfumed 
ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in it. 

3. "Every part of the body had its appropriate un<rnent. To the feet and legs the Greeks 
applied jEgyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm was thought tiest adapted to the 
cheeks and breasts ; the arms were refreshed with tialsam-inini ; sweet marjoram had the honor 
of .suftpi.v ing an oil for the eyebrows and hair, as wild ih\ me had for the knee and neck — A nice 
riisiinctinn divided perfumes into two kinds: the first were a thicker sort, and applied more as 
salves or wax (xp(i^aTa); the others were liquid, and poured over the Wiuhs idXciiJixara). To 
indulire in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and voluptuous disposition ; but 
the sober and virtuous, it was allowed, might use the thicker sort without any impeachment of 
their good qualities." Land. Quart. Rev. .\xiii. 263.— Persons cnlled d'htiiTTai were employed to 
anoint the body after the washing and the rubbing or scraping with the instrument termed 
(TT\eyyi<; or ^varpa. 

4 ?(. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were performed by women ; 
in particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as 
were higiily esteemed. 

In illus'r.tion of tliis custom of liissing ttie feet, cf. Aristophanes, £(^^/C£S, (p. 460. ed. Lug. Bat. 1624), and in New Test. Liikt 
vii. 3S ; Jolin xi. 2 

§ 171. The g-eneral construction of Greek houses has already been stated 
(§ 5G). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at Athens, it was 
applied to public buildings rather than private dwellings, which were mostly 
of an ordinary character. This was true also at Thebes, otherwise greatly 
celebrated for her superb architecture. Much more care was bestowed in orna- 
mentintr the interior apartments, especially the hall for eating, wMth rich furni- 
ture and utensils, and with elegant works of art (cf. P. IV^. § 178). Besides, 
the custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or openings 
vi'ith colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, and rendered their 
beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and 
■profit to construct the public edifices in a style of superior magnificence. 

1. The common term for the whole house was oiKoq ; the eating hall -was called 
TpiK\'Lviov and luTiaropiov ; the sleeping room, Koirvv.' — 'Poller gwes the ibllowing account 
of Grecian houses. " I'he men and women had distinct apartments. The part in 
which the men lodged was towards the gate, and called t'vjc^ptov or dfr^no/iTtg ; that assigned 
to the women, was termed ynvaiKcou, ywatKwviTig, and was the most remote part of the 
house, and behind the avM, before which were other apartments denominated nporoijio; 
and TTponv\io.'. The women's chambers were called rtyEui S«Xa//o(, as being placed at the 
top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women were usually in the highest 
rooms ('■'!■«., vrrEp'oa). Penelope lodged in such a place, t.o which she ascended by a 
K\ifia^{Ody.<:.t. i. 330)."— I'he terms dfaPaOfidc, dvafia'^ixii;, dva(iuQpa, and dfd/SaOpo:/, are all 
used to designate a staircase, a flight of steps, or stairs. — Portions of the upper story 
sometimes projected beyond the walls of the lower part, forming balconies or verandahs 
{■rrpofSo'Xai . yuun:(>'n(Tjj.aTa). The roofs were usually flat ; sometime^ pointed, with a ridge 
and gable. '1 he windows or openings for light and air {iivpidei) were commonly in the 
roofs of the peristyles. The chimney (KmrvoioKri) \s supposed to have been merely an 

opening in the roof. Although in general the private dwellings were of an ordinary 

character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which were very costly 
and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been more lofty and built with 
gi;eater solidity than those at Athens. 

In our Plate XXIV. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by S<war( (Dictionary of Archi- 
tectin-e). His account is as follows: "The Greek house had no atrium, but instead of it the 
peristyle w;is approached by a passage called tliyroreinn. On the side of the peristyle opposite 
the entrance was a kind of vestibule called pastas ; the apartments on the right and left of which 
were termed severally thalaaios and amphi-tlialarnos, and beyond them were the mci or halls. In 
'he first peristiile were the trirlinia in daily use, and the apartments of the domestics ; this divi- 
sion of the house was cailed ffyntr.nivitis. Iti the south portico of the o-rfa<e?- 7>e7'i.s/?//e, which was 
styled androniiis, were the pinacotlitca' and Cyzicene uciis ; in the eastern, the bibhoiheca ; in the 
western, the f^rf^/ra ; and in the northern, the fTctt^ aicMA-, or l)anqueiitig-room. The hospitalic 
consisted of triclinia and sleeping-rooms for strangers, and were on the right and left of the great 
"ECUS. There were courts or passages to these apartments calle.d viesaiilin. In the plan [t'iven in 
Plate XXI v.] a is the thyroreuw ; b, peristyle a^ 1\\g gijno'covii is f c, the pastas ; d, the great aci s , 
«!, stables; /. /'. courts; ir, g, jt/, porter's cello;; h. It, common triclinia ; i, the thulain.os; j. the 
nnphi-th'liiaiiis ; k, k,(Eri or halls; 1,1, the mesanla; ; in, in, the hospitalia; w, the vestibule : o, 
le grea' peristyle ; f, the bibliotheca; (/, q, the pinacothecce ; r, the Cyiiceve acus ; s, the ejedra." 

2 A door icvua, nrvXn) was fastened by means of lock and key [kXcL:); the key de- 



PLATE XXV. 




213 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

scribed by Homer deems to have been merely a bolt v/hich was moved by a tboiig 
(tpiaj) attached to it(Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use. 
— Various articles of furniture are named. Although the house usually had afixed fire- 
place (eotui), portable stoves (fo-xi'paO or chafing-dishes (ds'OpaKiu) were frequently used. 
In the sleeping room was the bed, Koirr) or Xi^oj ; this was often in the form of the sofa, 
about six feet long and three broad ; called also /cXjm'?. The chair (S^powj), ewer (Trpoxooj) 
and basin for washing (Xovriipioy), mirror {KaroTTrpou) and its case or stand (Ao(/;rioj'), clothes- 
chest {Kiarq), &c. are mentioned. 

Ill Plate XXXII. fig. b, is a son of key fi)rmed by a bolt and string; it was found at Pompeii , 
in PlatB XXIV. fii;. 2, we have a Grecian metallic key, selected from a number given in Movt' 
faiicon. — Fig. 5, of this Plate, shows a Grecian sofn-ied, with a man in one corner and his wife 
reclining betiiiui tiiin. Fig. 10, of the same IMate-, is another form of the Greek sofa; it is covered 
with a cushion, from which an ornamental appendage hangs over one end of the frame. Fig. d, 
of Plate XXXIl. is a curious form, taken from on Egyptian monument. — Cliuiis (Egyptian) are 
seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, of Plate XXIV. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4. — The latter, fig. 4, 
shows also a mirrtir, held by the female before her face. 

Respecting the Greek house, &c. see Becher^s Charicles, — HiVt'iGeschichle der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4. 

§ 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce, were 
highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 

1 u. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phoenicians 
solely; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the 
Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then chiefly monopolized by 
the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of 
her soil; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even 
there it gradually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later pe- 
riod, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the states just named, 
Corinth and the islands iEgina and Rhodes were the principal places of commerce ; 
and their industry and enterprise contributed very much to the wealth and power of 
the Grecian states. 

2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce, being washed on three sides by the 
sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and metals, which 
came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted 
fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia; woolen and other stuffs from Asia Mi- 
nor and Syria; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities on the Black sea 
They likewise exported, not only diflferent commodities brought from foreign coun- 
tries for the purpose, but the. products of Attica, which were chiefly olives and oil, 
and various articles of manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils. 

Carthelemy's Aiiacharsis, ch. Ivi. — D. H. HegewiscVs geograph. iind histor. Nachrichten die Colonien der Gviecheo betreffend 
Altona, 1S08. 8, — Railings History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients. — Benedict, Geschichte der Schifffahrt und des Handeli 

der Alten. For an account of the routes by which the productions of the east were conveyed through Babylon to the countries of 

the Mediterranean, see Hceren on the Commerce of Ancient Babylon, as translated by F. M. Hubhard, in the BM. Repos. vol. vii. 
D. 364 ss. 

3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51), that agriculture was at 
•an early period a subject of practical interest among the Greeks. Yet the art does 
not appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any of the states. (Cf. ^ 58.; 

The plow {'ipoTfjoi^) of the Greeks is said to have been of two kinds {6vo £i6rj) ; the 

one kind, composite (tt^xtov) ; the other, simple {dt'Toyvoi'). (Cf. Hes. Works and 
Days, V. 432, 436.) The principal parts of the composite were the following ; the 
iaro.Sotv; or /5»/io,-, beam; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong 
connecting the yoke with the beain ; the vwig or vwit, plowshare, whose extreme 
point was called vvfxfp-^ ; it was attached to a piece of wood called iXvjxa, and connected 
with a piece termed yvm ; the ixerXn, handle. 

A specimen «)f the sinjple may be seen in our Plate XXXII. fig. 6, which represents a Syrian 
plow, with a small metallic blade or share, furnishing an illustration of the metaphor of the pro. 
phet (Micah iv. 3) : other forms are seen in fig. iii. ; one of the engravings shows a single bullock 
drawing the plow, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the 
animal by a rein. 

See Mongez, Sur les instrumens d'asrieutlure des anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, CI as s e d^Hist. et Lit. Jinc. vol. ii. p. 616 j 
vol. iii. (published 18IS), p. 1. with engravings.— Cf. Rougier, as cited § 13. 5. 

4. The soil of Attica was more favorable to the production of the grape (/Jdrpvj), olive (tXajoj), 
and fig (tOthv), than of grain (aTro^); and it was necessary to import the latter; it has been 
estiiTiated that one-third of the quantity annually consumed was imported. The e.vportation of 
corn wuj pi.~M ji'ed. The sale of it was under the supervision of nflicers called airo(l)v\aKSi. 
If corndealers (crtrt/TrwXat) combined to raise the price, they were liable to capital piuiishment. 

n order to a/.»)u a scarcity of corn (aiToSeia), public granaries (aiToSoKai) were kept, under the 
lirection 7'i pur'ryors (cnroivai) and receivers (dvuSeKrat). 

Or this subject fee Bod^^th Public Economy of Athens — Berge^ie, Hist, de I'Agrlc. des Grecs. Par. 1830. 2 vo'.s. 8. 

§ 17?, Hi.'Tf H may be proper to give a bri^f ac(;ount of the moneys, weights, 
and mp;S'(Te?. of the Greek«!. In early times, traffic was effected only by ex- 
change a'. Joo(!s, or barter, the inconvenience of which must soon be felt- Pnde 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONEY. COINS. 213 

metals were next employed, in order to render an equivalent for what was pur- 
chased, and were weighed for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value 
were indicated by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular 
coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be decided 
(cf. P. IV. § 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C. 
about 600, they were in common use in Greece. The metals used in making 
money-coins were gold, silver, brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were 
impresficd only on one side. The impressions were various, both as to the 
objects represented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic 
coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird. 

1 u. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulating medium were 
these: vojiiajjLa, any legitimate coin ; xpiifia, money in the loose sense ; and Kq^ixa, small 
coin or change. Besides these there were numberless specific names, derived Irom 
the weight of the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their 
face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, but were not 
names of actual coins; as e. g. the ixt'd or jxAa, and the raXavroi^. The former (ftia) de- 
signated at Athens the sum of 100 drachms; at yEgina, the sum of 160; the term 
was however also used to signify merely the golden ara-D'p. The latter {raXavTov) was 
usually the sum of 6000 drachms, but had difl'erent values in difl'erent places ; a talent 
of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. 

2 u. Of the actual and circulating coins the Xc^rov was the smallest. Seven of this 
name were equal to the xa^'<oos, and eigJd ot the latter to the 6(ioXds. This last varied, 
however, in value, according to the place where it v,-as coined. Six diSoXdi were equi- 
valent to the cpaxiir), which had its name from the weight, but was of diflerent values 
in different places. The names of the coins »)f((w/?oA(oi/, Jtw/id.Xioi/ or hcjSoXov^ -pidpoXoi', 
.&.C., and I'liiidpaxixov, dic^paxixov, &LC., are easily understood. Four ^pa\[jLal were equal to 
the arart'ip in silver, a coin, which was also called rerpirpaxiio:^, and seems to have been 
the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The (jrarfp in gold was equal in 
value to 20 cpaxpat, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called cicpaxfj^o;, but was most 
generally termed \;p"o-o%. It received likewise other nam.es from the places where, 
or the kings under vvhom, it was struck; as e. g. Staler Daricus, Stater Crasi, &c. 

3. Anione the coins, named from the image upon them, were the ffoiii, bearing the figure of an 
ox; the Kopri, having a representation of Pallas, the maid; yXav^, with an owl for its device, 
another name for the tetradrachma. 

In Date XL. are several specimens of Greek coins, taken from Movfaucon's Antiqui\y Ex- 
plained, and from Calmet's DictioriHry. Fig. 1 is a coin of Thebes; fig. 2, of Argos; 3, of JEgir.a; 
4, and also a, d. and e, are Macedonian coins ; 5, and also q, c, /, and i\ are Athenian ; 6 is a coin 
nf Thespife ; 7 is an .^^tolian. Fig. 5 is an Attic tetrndrachm, with Minerva's head on the obverse, 
and on the reverse an owl standing on a prostrate vase, the dfx'pnpevq (amplioru) or StcoTr, (diota), 
with the inscription A0E , the whole encoii passed with an olive crown. Fig v is the reverse 
of a didrarlnn, showing an augur's wand and a sacrificial vase. Fig. / is the drachm, bearing a 
gort of tripod ; fig. c is another, which has the liend of a Vulcan, and on the reverse are two 
lighted torches ; on b, Apollo appears in company with the owl.— Cf. P. IV. $ 93.— For a tabular 
view of the chiefxoins and their relative value, see our Plate XXV a. 

^ 174 tc. Various changes successively took place in the denomination of Greek 
coins. There were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual 
contents and their relative value. Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for 
money. The Spartans were required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, 
and did not depart from the custom until a late period. 'I he common ratio between 
gold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a 
half. There are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with mo- 
iern, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the- former. The ^paxfifi equal- 
,ed about 9d sterling. 

1. The mint at Athens, or place where money was coined, was called upyvpoKO':TETni' ; here 
vere kept the standard weights for the various coins. — Many specimens nf the silver oTarfip or 
reTpj6paxpK'Va.re still preserved in collections. Le'roj/7(c, having accurately examined five hundred 
)f them, and arranged them according to the centuries in which they were struck, dedured the 
mean weight of the old Attic (5p«XA''i» coined B. C. two centuries and more ; and the value, as 
/hus derived, is stated at 17 cents 5.93 vtills of our currency. The latef SpaxM is stated at IQcent* 
6.% mills. 

2. Gee Cm^er's Essay on the Measures, VVeiglils. and Moneys nf the Greeljs and Romans, in Aiithon's ed. nf Umpi iere.~G. Grone, 
Metro). Tafein Uber die .111. Ma>se, &c. Roms und Griechenlands. (by A. G. Kaalner ) Brauns. 1792. 8 — F. C/i. Mallhui. t'tber- 
sirht (ies rom. und griech. Mass Gewichts- -Jnd Manz-Wesens Frankf. 1809. 4.—/. F. IVurm. De ponHrruni, etc raliniiibus jpud 
Romanos et Graecos. Lips. 1821. 8—Hussey, Ancient Mnney, Weights, kc. cited § 274. 2.—B6ckh. L'eber M.lnzen. ^I.^^se. und 

Sewichle des Allerthums. Lpz. 1838. b.—Echd, as cited P. IV. § 99. 1. On the wliole subje^ of Greeli Coins and Meials. sfr 

P. IV. ^§ 93-99. 

^ 175. In connection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of 
their svstems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient riiPtbod was 
r.iite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, I, perhaps Irom "To 
for Mia; for^ve, II, from Ucvtc] for te7i, A, from ^cku; for a hund'-ed. H Irom H«a. 



214 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Tov (l/caroi/) ; for a thousand, X, from XtXia; and for fen tliousand, M, from Mvpia, All 
mimbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; each combination signify- 
iiig the sum of the numbers designated by the letters separately; e. g. rilll repre- 
sented eight ; A III, sixteen ; A A, twenty, &c. Sometimes they were combined so as 
to express the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters ; in such case, one 
of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; 
for example, H (representing a n with a A in its bosom) signified 10X5, i. e. 50: so a 
n with an H placed within it signified 100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it, 
signified 10,000X10, or 100,000: this form of combination was chiefly confined to 
numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such numbers were expressed by using a large II and 
writing the letter lor the other factor in its bosom, 'i'his was the old Attic system, 
and is found on inscriptions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf P. IV. § 91. 4). 

But this method was superseded by another; in which all the letters of the alpha- 
bet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bau, Ko-ma, and "Zaixni:, men- 
tioned in P. IV. § 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Theta, 
expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after Epsilon, to sig« 
nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to J'i, expressing the tens ; the last (11) signifying 
80, and Kdrnra being used for 90; the next eight, from Rho to Omega, expressed the 
hundreds; il standing for 800, and Sa//7rr being used for 900. The letters, when thus 
used to designate numbers, were usually marked with a stroke above; thus, (', 10; 
<c', 20: k[3' 22. In order to express thousands, the eight first letters with Bau were 
again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus, i, 4,000 ; r, 6,000 ; kvVd , 20,432. 

Cf. Rubinson's Buttman, § l.—Boudlet, Dic^. Class. (Tableaux, &c. N. 34.) 

§'176. The use of weights was of early oriorin among" the Greeks, as else- 
where. Grecian weights had the same names with their coins of money, a 
circumstance which seems clearly to point back to the cusiom of weiorhincr 
uncoined gold and silver for purposes of exchancre. The proportions of the 
weights were different in different applications of them ; as, e. g. those of com- 
mon merchandi!=;e did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. 
The 6|3o?toj is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries 
or physicians, who used a weight, termed xfpartov, about one-fourth of the 
6;3o?i6?, and another, tftraptov, only one-fourth of that. 

Cf. L. Psetus, De Mensuris ef Ponderibus Rom. et Graecis. Veiiat. 1573. fol. — Wwm, Hussey, &c as cited § 174. 2.— See the 
tabular view given in Plate XXV o. 

§ 177. In speaking of the Greek measures^ we may notice them as divided 
into measures of length, of surface, and of capacity. 

1 u. The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in most o. 
the ancient nations, from members of the human body ; e. g. oikroXof , a finger's 
breadth ; a-mQann, a span, hand's width, the distance from the extremity of the thumb 
to that of the Uttle finger; to%, a foot. The Herculean or Olympic foot was longer. 
The 7r^X"f, a cubit, was the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle 
finger. 'Opyvia, a fathom, was the distance across the breast, between the extremities 
of the hands, the arms being extended (dpsyw) in a horizontal line. 

2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of surface, the principal 
were the otoj, the apoya, and the TrXeOpov. The novs was a square with each side one 
foot ; the apoipa, a square with each side 50 rcok^ ; and the TiKsQpov, a square with a side 
of 108 TToki; so that 2,500 tt6&e<; made an apo'^pa and 4 apo^ai a TAiQpov. — The term (nvapriov 
seems to have been used to designate a measuring line. 

3u. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to liquids or 
to things dry. The largest liquid measure was ixsrpTiThg, equal to about 8 gallons, and 
called also sometimes KdSog, Kepapnov, and ap<popn)s. The smallest measure was the KoxKiapiov, 
containing less than a hundredth part of a pint, and so called from koxXo^ or KoxXioy, a 
snail-shell. The learrjg contained about a pint, and was equal to twice the measure 
termed kotvXt). Between the kotvXy] (half pint) and the Kox^iapiov, six intervening measures 
are named. The measure next larger than the |OTrr?f (pint) was the xous, containing 
upwards of two quarts. 

4. The KOTvXr) is said to have been applied by ancient physicians to the sanne use as modtrn 
erad jated glasses of apothecaries, being made of horn, and divided on the oiUside by lines, so 
that certain parts of the measure corresponded to certain denominations of weight. The iargest 
measure applied to things dry was the /^£f5t/n!/o?, which contained somewhat more than a bushel 
and a fourth, and received different names in different regions. The xorj't^was a little less than 
a quart; forty-eight of which were contained in the tiiSiixvoi. The aJ^4|, equivalent to the 
hpitexTov contained four xoti/i>f£j. Most of the other measures were of the same names as 
the liquid measures. 

See G Hooper, Inquiry into the slate of Aflcient Measures, Attic, Roman, and Jewish. Lend. 1721. S.—Bbchh, Wurrtx, &c cited 
I 4 2. — Cf. the tabular vieU\ given in Plate XXV a. 

5 178. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were verv nu- 



PLATE XXV a. 



GRECIAN 

MONEYS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 

The estimated value in our denominations 
is given accordin;^ to the Tables of A. B. 
(i Conger, which are based on the Treatise of 
tVuruii & tlie Tables of Bovillet. 



Moneys. 

1. Below the Drachm. 



Aett^v .... 

7 I XnAKoSj . . . 

14 1 2 I AixaXicov 

•28 I 4 1 2 I 'H/xio/Jd,Vov 



56 I S I 4 I 2 I 'Ol3o Us 

11-2 I 16 I 8 I 4 1 2 I AwjJoXov • 



224 I 32 t 16 I S I 4 I 2 | T£Tpo/3(oXov 



336 i a I 24 I 12 I 6 I 3 1 1.5 | ApaXM 



Dolls CtS. 771. 

00 0.'. 

• 3.6 

• 7.3 

1 4.6 

2 9.3 
5 8.6 

II 7.2 

17 5.9 



2. Move the Drachm. 



2 I AC6paxiJ-ov 



Dolls 




■ 4 I 2 I TsTpddpaxiJ'OV 
20 I 10 I 5 IjCpvo-oSs-- 
Mva 



50 



25 



6OO0|,500nj,500J3.0|60|'i;t;7;r': 



CtS. 771. 

17 5.9 

35 I S 

70 3.7 

51 8.6 

59 3.2 

59 3.2 



soooojsoooohDCOol^coojaool lo I ^'^f^^oid"'' 



1055 
10555 93 2.6 



Measures of Capacity, 

1. For Liquids. 



Kox^idoiov 
2 I yiriiir, . 



Gal. qt, 




2 T 1 1.25 I MviTTpov 

KdyKtj 
I 



1 2'.5 I 2 



10 I 5 i 4 



SO I 15 



60 I 30 



4320 2160 



2 I Kva9os - 

0%vlia<l>ov 



3|l. 



6 I 3 I 2 I 'ViiaQTOv - 



I2| 6 I 4 I 2 I KoT-riAij 



2i I 12 I s I I I 2 I HtfTTi^S 



1441 72 I 48 I 24 |l2|b I XoSj 
S64i432l2>s|u4|72|36| 6 lAieuTj; 4 1 

2 



The AttoTTj doubled formed the next and largest 
measure, AlerpjjTT/S 



pts. 
COOT I 

0.015 I 

i 

0.019 j 

0.039 

0.079 

0.118 

0.2a7 

0.475 
0.950 I! 
l.7Qi || 
229 !, 

0.459 



2. For Things Dry. 



Kox^i-dgiov 



Bu. fk. qt. 




10 



1920 



1.5 I 'Olvpa^ov 



6 I 4 1 KotoXti - 
12 I 8 I 2 I "-ccTTjS 



24 I 16 I 4 i 2.1 Xoiw| 



9t I 64 i 16 I 8 i 4 I 'll/iicKTov 
192 |l2S| 32 liei 8 I 2 1 " Ektos - 



384 12-^6] 61 |32|l6| 4 I 2 | Tptrdj 



'52 76S|192 96H8|12| 6 1 3 I TSWi^lvos 1 1 



pts. 

0.007 

0.079 

O.IIS 

0.475 

0.950 

1.901 

I.6C6 

1.213 

0.426 

1.279 



Measures of Liength. 



1. Small Measures. 



AdiCTv\o$ 



KdrSvXos ... 
2 I riaAato-T^, or Awpov 



4 i 2 \ Aix^s, or 'Hiinrddov 



2.5 I 1.25 Ai.Yds - 
2.75 1 1. 37 ill. 01 I 'Op9rf5(opov 



3 I 1.5 I 1.2 ii.69 I ZJTieafiij 



2 I 1.6 I 1.45 I 1.3 1 noS? 



4.5 2 25 I 1.8 I l.63| 1.5 |l.l25| riuy/iij - 
5 I 2.5 I 2 I I.81I 1 6 ( 1.25 1.1 | Rvyd^iv 



6 I 3 1 2.4 I 2.18 I 2 | 1.5 \\.3\l.2' Ufjxvs 1 



In. 
0.73 
1.51 
3.03 
6.06 
7.58 
834 
9.10 
0.13 
1.65 
3.17 
6.20 



2. Oreat Measures. 



Iloifj 



BriiJ,a 



2400 1 960 



'Ogyvid . • • • 
AcKdnovs, KdXajiOi 



6 |".A^fta 



10 



1.6 I YlUepov • 

60 1 10 I 6 i LrdSiov • 

120 I v:0 I 12 1 2 I ACavXos 



400 2J0 I 40 I 2J I 4 I 2 I '\jrmic6v • 
72 I 12 I 6 I 3 I A6\ixo'; 



|l72U0!28S0|l200l 720 | 12 



Miles, yds. fU 

ODD I.OI 

• • 2.52 

• 2 6.06 

• 3 I. II 

• 20 0.68 

• 33 2.14 

• 202 87 

• 404 1.75 

• 809 0.50 

1 667 1.51 



Measures of Surface. 



Ilovs 



36 I 'K|a Td<T7ys • 

100 I 2.7 I ''AKCLiva 
833 3 |23.*14c-| 8.3 | 'H/iitfCTOj 
1666 6 1 46 3 he 6 I 2 \"KK.roi 



Poles, sq.ft. 

001.02 

. 36.82 

. 102.30 

. 3 35.79 

6 71.58 

- 9 107.37 



2600 I b9 4 I 25 I 3 1 1.51 "Apoi^pa 

lOlOO I277.7 I 100 1 12 I 6 I 4 nXiBgov 37 1.57.26 



Weights. 

1. Below the Drachm. 

(Troy Weight.) 
Dwts. grs. 
AtTtrbv :..... 00.20 
7 I jCaXicovS • • . • • 
Vijiio^dXiov .... 



.28 I 4_ 

56 I 8 ! 2 I '0/?oXds 

II2I 16| 4 I 2 I Aw l36\ov . 

336| 48 i 12 I 6 I 3. 1 AgaxfiV 



• 1.40 

• 5.61 

• 11.22 

• 22.44 
2 19.33 



2. Move the Drachm. 



Apa x/J-i) 
2 I AiSpaxit-ov 
ion I .50 I Mva ■ 



(T 


roy 


Weight.) 


Lbs. 


oz. 


dwti 


. «rr». 


00 


00 


2 


19.33 


• 


• 


5 


14.66 


1 


2 





13.46 



SOOO 1 3000 1 60 I TdXavTov 



70 1 13 17.29 
IOCC0[5000|l00|l|j ''^°^^.^^°^| 116 10 16 4.SI 

215 



216 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

merous, and in the better portion of their, history, various, refined, and tasteful. 
Music and dancing were anfiong the most prominent, and were almost a neces- 
sary accompaniment of public and private festivals, entertainments, and social 
meetings. In this custom there was a regard not merely to immediate gratifi- 
cation, but also to the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical 
accompaniment were almost inseparable; at least instrumental music was 
scarcely ever practiced without vocal. There were several kinds of exercise, 
which it was common to connect with the entertainments of the banquet, and 
various social games or plays (cf. § 167). 

There was an amusement in which dancing and playing with a ball {aipaTpa) were 
connected together'. The game at ball was a favorite amusement, and was ranked 
among the gymnastic exercises ; five different modes are named : oipavta, liriaKvpos, 
faiviv6a, aimaardi', (xnofpalig. There was a sort of dancing in which the dancers or tumblers^ 
{Kv0i(7TriTrjpeg) flung themselves on their heads and alighted again on their feet, and made 
somersets over knives and swords. — A favorite dance is still preserved^ in Greece, called 
Momaica. 

1 Burette, Spheristique des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des laser, vol. i. p. 153. 2 See Paciaudius, as cited § 88. 2,— 

BecAer, Charicles, &c. :^ Lond. Quart. Rev xxiii.350. 

See Burette, De la danse des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. i. 93. — /. Meursixis, De Saltationibus Veterum, contained 
in vol. viii. of Groiiovius, as cited § \3.—Jul. Cxs. Buletigeri de ludis privatis ac doniesticis veterum liber unicus. Ludg. 1627. 8 
This is given also in the Class. Jov.rn. vol. v. — On various Doric dances, cf. MUller, Hist, and Antiq. of Doric Race, bk. i. ch. vi, 

§ 179. Under the Archaeology of Greek literature notice is taken (cf P. IV. <5> 63, § 65, 
of the great importance and comprehensive meaning of music (ftouo-iWj) in the system of 
education among ihe Greeks. Here we introduce some remarks on musical sounds a.nd 
instruments. To denote what is now called the Science of Music the Greeks used the 
term 'Apfiot/tKfj. The subject was divided into several parts ; stated by some as follows : 
1. of sou'itds {Trepi (pOoyycji') ; 2. of intervals (tts/ji diaaTrnxiTcoi') ; 3. of systems {■^spl avarripiaTwv) ; 
4. of genera {TrsjA yEvoyy) ; *5. of modes (jrepl tovwv or vojxwv) ; 6. of transition or mutation 
{-epl nETa(io\ng) ; 7. of composition {jrepi jiEKo-nouai). '—'■'■ The notes or sounds of the voice were 
seven, each of which was attributed to some particular planet: 1. fcdr??, to the Moon; 
2 nap'mdTri, to Jupiter ; 3. \ixayog., to Mercury ; 4. nhrj, to the Sun ; 5. irapaixhn, to Mars ; 
6. rpiTTi, to Venus ; and 7. vfirri, to Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary 
order, and ascribe vTrdni to Saturn, and vrirr] to the Moon.' — The tone or mode, which 
the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was called vofjog ; and they were 
called vojxoi, as being laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four 
principal voiioi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these 
some add a fifth, which they call the j3<^olic, but which is not mentioned by ancient 
authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martial ; 
the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the ^ohc, simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers 

to battle was called "Opdiog. Afterwards, the term vopioi began to be applied to the 

hymns which were sung in those modes." 

Robinsim, Arch. Grajc. bk. v. ch. xxiii. — For a fuller account of the science, see Smith, Diet, of Ant. p. &H.^~Drieherg, Musi 
kalische Wlssenschaften der Griechen.— Also, fiureUe, Chabaiion, &c. as cited P IV. § 63 — Afci'iowt'wj, Collection of ancient writers 
on Music, cited P. V. § 208. 1. 

§ ISO. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of 
those who only played on instruments was called p.o"ciKh xpiM; that of those who also 
sang to the instrument, pomiKn pera peXfoSiag. The musical instruments were divided into 
ep-nvemTo., wind instruments, and evrara or v£vp66eTa, stringed instruments. The lyre, the 
flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; but there were several othevs. 
— Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous wa? 
the lyre, which was called in Greek KiOiipa and (poppiy^, though some affect a distinctioi 
between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen thread, aiu 
afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in 
number, whence such lyre was called TpixopSog; and the lyre with three strings is said 
by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes de- 
nominated dmag. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, 
and hence was called £trTdxopiog, l-rrTatpdoyyog , and tnTavXcoaraog. They struck the strings 
sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- 
ment was called in Greek KiQapiUiv, Kpoveiv nXriKTpoi, or 6i ■ ksiv, 6aKrv\ioig Kpovciv, and ij-dWeiv. 
To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This 
instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of 
which the lyre was made. — The flute, avXng, was a celebrated instrument. It was used 
in the sacrifices of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva 
is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (TrXayta 'Xoj). Flutes were 
made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vefipeioi avXoi, and the inven- 
(ioii of making them of these' materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also 
made of the bones of asses, and of elephants; and likewise of reed, box, and lotus. 
The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in playing on this instrument. — The pipe 



P III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 

was called cvpiyl, and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp 
and shrill, and hence its sounds were called Xs-rrTaXeat. On the contrary, the sound cf 
the flute was grave, full, and mellow ; and hence the flute was denominated /^apiS/Jj.o/ics." 

Residps the instruments already named, we may mention the following, arranged under the 
headg <>{ slriufred inslruments, wind instruments, and instruments of percussion. 

1. Stringed instruments: I'apXa, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings 
(SuSeku (pOoYYOvg) ; nrjKris, another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians; /zayaJfj, a lute 
with twenty strings : anKapov, said to be of a square form and similar to the ipiOv/jai 
Kivvpa, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps wiihout foun- 
dation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and 
in playing were struck with a plectrum {nXrjKrf.o:^), like a modern violin ; aan/Sv^-r), samhuca 
(cf. Persiuft, Sat. v. 25), sackbut (cf Da?i. iii. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four 
strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; Tplywvov, a triangle with several strings 
of unequal length ; xpaXTpptov, said to be hke the fiaya^tg, and also used for any variety 
of the lyre ; xpiOvpa, a Libyan instrument of a square form. 

In Plate XXVI, are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig. I. is a triangular form 
of the harp or lyre, hy some considered as the sambucuy hy others as the tii(ront)n. Fig. C pre- 
sents a similar form ; this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Ilercii- 
Innnum (cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xviji. 87); it shows a Cu|iid dancing and playintr. Fig. 10 is by 
some called the saw(6)(ra; having four strinjrs apparently over a sounding hoard. Fig. w is an 
old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as " Tiniotheus's 
harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Montfancim. Fig. 2 is a form of the 
lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. e shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- 
pian lyre, see Plate XL. Al'. 6.)— In fig. 6, we have the kivura or violin, from Mnvtfaucon. In fig. 7 
is a similar instrument from J^iebnhr, in a side view ; a front view of it is given in fis. 8, having 
fve strings of metal wire. Fiii. 3 and fig. .5, also from J^''iebnhr, are given in Calmet, as other 
forms of the kinvra or kiiinnr, which have been noticed by travelers in the east. A harp con- 
sisting of seventy-two strings or wires is said to be used in Kurdistan (cf. j3. Grnjit, p. 5~, as 
cited P. I. $ 154b). Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and jseeins to be the 
same instrument with three strings; it has b^en supposed to represent the Hebrew shalii<him 
played on by females in David's time (1 Sam. xviii. 6). In fig. / is seen a Persian violin and 
fiddler. 

2. Wind instrum€nts:l'X"^of, a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usually made of 
boxwood ; yi-vypoL or yiyypia, a Phoenician pipe (cf "Ji 77. 2), short, of a plaintive note; 
(lovaiko;, a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; ajKu-Ao;, a sort of bagpipe. It may 
be remarked, that there was a great variety of these instruments belonging to the class 
of pipes or flutes. The (rvpiyl, which is called also the pipe of Pan, is of great antiquity • 
some suppose it to be the instruiricnt meiuioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 2i, cf Compre 
kensive Commentary) by the name of uguhh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and 
Syria; with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from fve to twenty-jive. A 
double flute is often meniioned, called also the rigid a7id left (cf ^ 238) ; the right one, or 
that held in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher rone than the 
left; and both as blown by the performer at the same time. The male flute-player 
was termed avXr|Tt^l;•, the female, avXrjrpta, or aiXripl;. — There were several varieties 
likewise of the cdXTriyl, or trumpet ; as, x-ipaj, a Phrygian trumpet, or fluie crooked like 
a horn; Kcpanvh, a trumpet of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also 
to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind 
termed v^pa'0\iq, or water-organ; the shape of an ancient organ is exhibited partly at 
least in a poem, by Optatianus (cf P. V. ^ 341), describing the instrument in verses so 
constructed as to resemble its form. 

In Plate XXVI. we have also represented a number of wind instruments. Fig. s is the pipt 
with seven reeds. Fig. ?/ is the single flute as given by Pfeiffer, from J^Tiebuhr. In fig. a we see 
a musician blowing the double flute ; it is taken from a representation fmind at Pompeii (vf Pom- 
peii, p. 2(^0, as cited P. IV. $ 226. 1). Fig. ii. presents also, as has been supposed, the double 
flute; it is from a representalinn found at Herculaneuu) ; the two parts seem to be of equal 
length. (The same appears to be the case in the view< siven Plate XXV. fig. // and !.)— Fig. ?/ is 
the keras or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. t is another form, straight; by some supposed to 
represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelites in the wilderness (cf. JVimi. x. 2). 
Fig. B shows a form of the Roman cor/tu. Fig. 'i reprtsenis a performer upon a sort of j'/w/e; it 
is from an Eeyptian monument. Fi;;. A is taken from an anci<-nt altar on which is sculptured 
the funeral pomp of Hector; the fiirure here given leads the pr-CHssi-.n ; it is a womiti lilowing 
a long flute with its extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet ; a funeral pipi% tised as an 
accompaniment to the threne or funeral song (cf Malt. xi. 17) f^-^^-, Goland. as cilfd J 282 2.-- 
A description of the hydranlis is given in a treatise of the mathematician Heron icf Theveimt, \f\. 
Math. Op., cited P. V."$ .08 <. 1); a drawing, desiirned after this description, is found in ForkvVj 
Geschichte (cited P. IV. } 63). Cf. JVou. Oovim. S<>c. Reg. Gotting. vol. ii. 

3. Instruments o\ percussion: some instruments of this (;lass werr niso used ; ri>/<7ra op 
a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the niher. luruied ol wood with 
leather drawn over it ; sometimes flat on both sides, consisting ul a short hollow cylinder 
with leather or skin drawn over both ends ; i,^d-°!i with iIm; hand, or with a suck , miicl. 
used at the festivals of Cyhele and of Bacchus; .v-,j/?iXa, iiymbals which vvere of metal 
(XiXKa); in the shape of two half globes ; usually large and iiroad ; sometim-os stnaller, 
BO that two (perhaps those termed ^cpou/iam) were held in each hand of the player, an(' 
«-Mch as arc used by oriental dancing-woirien. The k Sou was merely a little bell; th<' 



218 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

forms and uses of bells were various. The KpdraXou is described by some as a sort of 
bell made of brass ; by others, as '• made of a reed split in two and so fitted as to emit 
a sound from the touch." The aelarpou, sistrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument, 
used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval frame, wuh several bars of metal, 
which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument 
was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was tormed by placing metallic rings 
BO as to move freely upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the torm of a circle, 
sometimes of a triangle. 

Several instruments of percnssinn are exhibited in Plate XXVI. Fig. iii. is the tympanum or 
drum ; in fig. h are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called custanets. Fig. o, different 
forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the triav^le nith vinos; by it is a stick with a kncb at 
thp end, nsed perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands 
of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf Dun. iii. 10).— In Plate Xl-V. 
representing a sacrifice to Priapus, we see two women pla\'ing on the tyinpanuin. In Plate XXV. 
fig./, the Bacchante is playing with either the crotala or the small cyinhals. The sistrum is seen 
in fig. 0, oftlie same plate i also in the paw of the Sphinx, Plate VUI. 

On the musical instnmients of the ancjenis, cf. Mo?ilfavcon, as cilej P II. § li 2. id), vol. iii. p. 342, and Supplem. vol. iii. p. 185. 
~Calmet, Dictionary, &c. vol. iii. p. 337. ed Chariest. 1818. — FosLfl-oke's Erjcyclop. oiled § 13. p. 704 —F. Ji. Lariipe, Ue Cynibalij 
Veteruin. Traj. ad Rhen. 17113 12.; a so in Ugolinus, cited § 197. I. — PJeiffer, 0[i the Music of ttie Hebrews, traiisUted by 0. A, 
Taylor, in the Bihl. Reposil. and Quart. Obstrv. vol. vi p 3o7. (with a pla e )— SuZze)-, AU^. Theorie, Arlicle Imtramental- 
Musik. — /. Hawkins, Historv of Music. Lond. 1776. 5 vols. 4. 

§ 181. The restraint innposed upon the female sex among the Greeks has 
already been mentioned (cf. § 59). This state of subjection and degradation 
continued even in the most flourishing times. Unmarried females were very 
narrowly watched. Their apartment in the house (rtap^fi-wi^) was commonly 
kept closed and fastened. The married women were at liberty only to go as 
far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. 
In general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not 
without wearing a veil {xd'kvTiT'pov). 

1 u. In Sparta, however, only married women were required to wear veils ; the un 
married might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far more liberty at 
Sparta than at Aihens. Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote an innocent 
familiarity of intercourse. But this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at 
length degenerated into licentiousness. 

On the. state of female society in Greece, see Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxii. 163. — Bibl. Repos. vol. ii. p. 478. — Social Condition oj 
the ancient Greeks. Oxf. IS32. — A. Walker, Woman physiologically considered as to Mind, Morals, &c. Lond. 1839. 8. — W.Aiex 
ander, History of Women. Loud. 1782. 2 vols. B.—Lenz, as cited § 59.— G. Bernhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. 

2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the earlier 
ages^cf. § 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom (io-rdj) and shuttle (fipxn'f) ; the 
loom was upright ; two perpendicular beams (toroTrd&f or /cfXedirsf) supporting a cross- 
beam, from which the threads constituting the warp (a--n/.ia)y) were hung; the w;oo/ was 
termed KpoKfi', also ecp'^ipri and poScivri. They also employed the needle ((k£o-rpa, pa'pig) in 
making garments, and various furniture for household use. Embroidery (f'pyoj' ^pvyiau- 
or <!>p':yLOJO}', opus Phrygium) was an art much cultivated, being perhaps the most im- 
portant part of the general art of variegating in colors {noiKiXia), which was effected also 
by painting and dyeing, and by weaving. Curtains {Trcpovfinara, a term applied to a gar- 
ment or any article of cloth fastened by a. rrspo.'ri or brooch), and other articles, richly 
embroidered (TroXtJ/cco-ra), were wrought for private dwellings and for the temples (ct. *i '^S). 

A splendid work on Ancient Tapeitry was commenced at Paris in 1837, to be completed in 4 vols. fol. wiih cuts and engravines.— 
See Countess oj Wdtoti, The Art of Needle-work from the earliest A?es ; with Notices of the Ancient Historical Tapestries. 3d ed. 
Lond. 1841. 12.— Cf M ss Lambert, Hand-book of Needle-work ; with illustrations. N. York, 1842. 

^ 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, and was 
promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties 
were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried after a certain age. At Athens 
also, all who wished to be commanders or orators, or to hold any public office, 
were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other 
hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases, 
The age at which marriage (ya^oj) should be allowed was also prescribed, 2 
younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter, at Athens, were 
forbidden to marry untir they were thirty-five. At Sparta the usual age foj 
men to marry was thirty., and for women twenty. Marriage between parties 
i)f n(>ar consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as im- 
proper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters 
l»y the same father, (yjaorta'i'"pLouj), although not those by the same mother (o^uo- 
uj^rpt'ovs). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a 
•Miizen; yet there was sometimes an exception. 



PLATE XXV T. 




•il9 



220 GRLCIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with seventy. Although polygamy 
was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without restraint, Concubinea 
rraWaKiSeg) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly 
common, and favored even by the whole system ol' religious worship. In Athens the 
most distinguished statesmen and philosophers openly associated with females of dissolute 
morals {cTaipai). The city of Corinth was still more famous for hcentiousness. One 
of the most odious forms of licentiousness among the Greeks was the TTaiiepaaria ; how- 
ever free from impurity might have been originally the relation and the habits of inter- 
course in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved {kKeivoI or airai) and their lovers 
((t)i\ijTop£g) , and whatever excellent qualities might have belonged to the 'I'heban sacred 
bandi'iepa ijfiaAayl) said to have been a body of 300 composed of lovers and Uieir beloved, 
it is nevertheless true that the hateful debauchery commonly designated by this term 
was extensively practiced. 

Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bill. Repos. vol. ii. p. 441. — On paederasty, of. £erhardy, GrunJriss 
ier Griech Lit. p. 43.— MUller, Hist, and Ant. of Dorians, bk. iv. rh. Q.—Bcryd'a Poller, p. 600. 

21. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to consult the 
parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (CTtVpoTroj). The betrothing 
was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other 
mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed 
on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called a(iia, AppalSibv, iivmrpov. The giving 
of a dowry (Trpol^, cpepv}]) wuh the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens 
it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta, 
however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and 
the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered 
an acknowledgment or receipt {-KpomSa), when he took the stipulated gifts.. At Athens 
it vvas customary before the actual niarriage, to present the bride before Diana with 
offerings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dpKTcia, and Vv'as designed to appease 
the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities, 
male and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore 
called yafiy'jXioL ^eoi, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into the 
marriage contract. 

3 ?/,. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, were 
adorned with garlands and flowers. I'owards the evening the bride was conducted to 
the house of the bridegroom (oIkov ayeadai) either on foot or in a carriage {upua). The 
bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was called T^apoxo; or rrapdwijKpos. A pro- 
cession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music and 
dancing. When the nevvly married couple entered the house, it was customary to place 
or pour upon their heads, figs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to 
a banquet, which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yajjios, and 
was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called viitvaioi, or vixhe^. After 
the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber (SaXuftoj), which, 
as well as the nuptial bed (X^xoj, XsKrpov), was usually highly decorated (jraaTog) [or the 
occasion. The young men and maids remained without, dancing and singing the 
ETTidaXdniou KotixriTLKoi/, while a friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door 
{^^'p(opog). This company returned to the, door in the morning, and sung what was 
called the eniBaXdixiov eyepriKov. The nuptial solemnities occupied several days; one of 
the days was called E-rravXta ; another dirauha. 

See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthelemyh Amcharsis, ch. Ixxvii. On the marriage customs of Sparta 

cf. MUller, bk. iv. ch. iv. 

4. Children were discriminated as yvmm, lawfully begotten ; voQoi, born of harlots or 
concubines; S^^roi, adopted. The paternal authority over the son ceased, at Athens, 
when the son had completed his nineteenth year. It was an ancient custom for legi- 
timate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, without respect 
to priority of birth; allowing a small pittance to such as were unlawfully begotten. The 
father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus dis- 
inherit him by a form of proceeding termed nnoKnp^^liq. If there were no legitimate sons, 
the estate of the father fell to the daughters, who in such a case were termed IttIkXtjpoi; 
but their nearest relatives might claim them in marriage. When there were no lineal 
descendants {tKyovoi) to inherit the property, it fell by law to the collateral relations 
(o-uyytwr?) ^ first to descendants of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and 
the children of brothers ; next to descendants of the same grandfather with the deceased, 
lo cousins and children of Cousins, the issue of males in every case taking precedence 
Df the issue of fe.uales; a first cousin was termed dvsxpiog ; a first cousin's son, dvt4'ia^'''yq. 
The heir {^kX^pov' jio^) was said to receive his inheritance (fAfjpof) either by right of descent 
dyxicrnia) or by righ' of consanguinity (avyytifeia). A male heir by right of descent might 
Sake possession immediately ; or, if any one hindered him, might bring against that one 
in action of ejectment .{lixfiarsia). Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to 
idopt whom they pleased ; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could 
,ot take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — Free citizens 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL RITES. 221 

were permitted to dispose of their property by will {SiadfiKr]), after the time of Solon; 
but there were certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were signed and sealed betbrr. 
witnesses, and put into the hands of trustees (iTrtfxEXrjToi) who were to execute them. 

Potter, Arch. Graec. bk. iv. ch. xv. — Blanchard, On Laws respeclin? Adoption, &.C. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 68 -• — On th( 
subject of inheritances, see Sir IV. Jones, in his Transl. of Isseus [cf. P. V. ^ 104. 3.J — Buiiscn, De Jure hered. Athen. — Scliomait, 
Ant Jur. Publ. Graec 

§ 183. Somethinor shoald be said of the Greek customs in later times in 
reference ta funerals and burials. Fnnefal obsequies were considered as a 
sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed Scxaca, voixif.ia., oma.. 
They were denied only to notorious criminals, traitors, and suicides, especially 
such as destroyed themselves to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like, 
whose remains, if they happened to obtain burial, w^ere even disinterred. 

^ 184 t. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have already 
•5 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the corpse in a costly 
robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it wiih green boughs and gar- 
lands of flowers. The body was then laid out to view {TTporideadat) in the entrance of 
the house, on the grcimd, or on a bed ((cAut;) or a bier ('/ifp^rpoO, where it remained at 
least one day, with the feet towards the gate. It was while here constantly Vvaiched. 
A vase of lustral waier (ipoii'ioy) stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly 
before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an (3,JoXdj, was placed in the 
mouth, as the fare ((5ayaK-?7, iiop9yLiov) due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the 
Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (f/sXXtrroum) was also put in the mouth, to ap- 
pease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into Hades ("Ao.^j). 

On the meaning of the term Hades, and the opinions of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, see P. U. § 32. 

As a burial snnn after death was supposed to be pleasing to the deceased (cf. Horn. 11 xxiii. 71) 
the Greeks usually kept the corpse only until the third d.iy. It does not appear that they eve? 
adopted the Egyptian custom of enibaltning the dead. 

Respecting the custom of embalming, see De Cayliis, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. xxiii. 119.—/. C Jiairen. Description of anEg^p-. 
tian Mummy. Eost. 1^24. ^.—Granville, On Egyptian Mummies ; in the Philos. Trajisaclions of the Royal Soc. for tlie year 1S25. 
p. 269.— r. J. Pttligrm, History of Egyptian Mummies. Lond. 1S34. 4. 

^ 185 t. The funeral itself was termed iKKonicr,, or cKcpopa, the carrying forth of the 
corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. 
In Greece, sfenerally, young persons were buried at break of day or early morning 
twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, or 
a large shield, and the heavers (veKpodaTTTai) carried it on their shoulders (ap^n' ^^p^"'), fol 
lowed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on 
horseback, or in carriages; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. — ■ 
Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by 
wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head wuh ashes, and plucking off 
the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were peribrmed by 
musicians employed for the purpose {^pyrwu e^apxoi); one d'ngei^f.n-^'Oi) was sung as the 
corpse was borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile ; and a third, at the grave ; they 
were called 6\o(p^'pij.ol • also taXs/zyt, TciXtfxoi. 

Funeral chan's are still com.mon in Greece, termed myriolcgues. — See Mrs. Hemans, Greek Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Best. 
1827. vnl. ii. p. 160. 

§ 18G. The cnstom of burning the corpse became universal amnngr the later 
Greeks; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly mentioned before (§31). 
1 t. The ashes and bones were gathered {daroXdyiov) in an urn, and buried commonly 
without the city, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for 
this purpose (Ka^irai, 'XapvaKEg, ocrrodnKai, oaro^^oxda, aopol, &,c.) were made of different ma- 
terials, wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances of the 
deceased. These urns were sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which was formed 
of stone or other materials; and to this chest, as Well as to the urn, the term capKo^ayoi 
seems to have been applied. 

The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babybm to Alexandria in a splendid carriage, and 
his ftmeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy. The ?<ircnphaints in which the <rolden 
cotf;n or rirn containing his remains was inclosed, is said to be now in the British Miisemi', 
having been discovered at Alexandria by the French in the expedition of Bonaparte, and by 
them siirrendereii to the English. 

E. D. Clarke, The Tomb of Alexander. Camb. 1805. 8. Cf. a!=n Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. p. 164. ed. N. Vo'k. ^H]n.—t^untr 
de Qiiincx'. Sur le char funeraire qui transporte de Babylnne en Egypte le corps d'Alexandie, in the Mem. de PAcad. des Ititcr 
Classe d'H St. el Lit.Anc. vol. iv. p. 315, with a plate. Cf. C dc Caylvs. in the Mim. de VArn<1. des Inscr. xxxi. 86. 

On an alabaster Sarcophagus discovered at Thebes, in the tombs of the kings. Loud. Quart. Rev. xviii. 369 ; xix. 192, 404. 

Along with the corpse when buried, and with the urns containing the ashes when the corpse 
was burned, it was customary to deposit cups, phials ((PtaXiSc;), vases {\TiKvf)i)i), of different 
kinds, and other articles; many of which have been found in modern times bysearcbitig ancient 
sepulchers. These vessels arc sometimes of terra cotia, sometimes of nlnba.'^ler, not unfr<'nuently 
of slass. Some made of the latter material have been gathered from the catacombs in the island 

18 



222 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades (cf. P. V. $ 146). " Amon^ the decayed bones ar« 
found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for Ihe ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases (cf. 
$341. 7), with large quantities of glass, earthen, and copper vessels, probably for oils and per- 
fumes. . . . Many earthen cups are of the form we call Etruscan; the larger are painted 
with a light pencil ; often only the outlines are given, but generally with n)uch spirit. The ques- 
tion whether the ancients knew the use of glass, was settled by ilie discoveries in Pompeii ; this 
is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are generally riat at the bottom, and 
four inches over; they rise one inch, of this diameter, and then suddenly narrowing to the dia- 
meterof an inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches ; their shape is much 
like that of a candlestick : but I have several other forms, running through a considerable 
variety." 

The above quotation is from Junes^s Sketch of Naval Life N. Haven, 1829. 2 vols. 12 — Cf Sillimnn's Journal, vol. .^vi. p. 333, 
for engravings of some of these vases. — Specimens of the vases found at Milo are in the cabinet of Amherst College. — For further 
notices of the urns and vases found in sepulchers, see § 341, and P. IV. § 173. 

2 t. The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulogy, with 
games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases, were repeated on 
successive anniversaries; the sacrifices and offerings in honor of the dead were various; 
rplra, those offered on the second day after the funeral; ewara, on the ninth; rpiaKakq, 
on the thirtietli, when the time of mourning expired, which at Sparta, however, was 
limited it is said to eleven days : x^a'' and tvayiajxara, libations and offerings of flowers 
and fruits at various times ; ycvia-ia, ofTerings on the birth-day of the deceased ; veicxxjia, 
offerings on the anniversary of the death. — In the case of such as had died in war, the 
oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as 
so important that the speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates. 
Thus Pericles was appointed, when the Athenians solemnized a public funeral for those 
first killed in the Peloponnesian war (Thuci/d. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same 
honor was rendered to those who fell in the fatal battle of ChoBronea (cf. Mitford's 
Greece, ch. xlvii. sect. 6). 

For a very interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of the dead, the 
student is referred to the twcvty-third bank of ihe Iliad, where Homer gives an account of the 

funeral of Patroclus. Solemn tames with rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor 

nf his friend- [Ief)ha?stion at Ecbataiia ; the whole ceremonies of the funeral were conducted 
with great magnificence, according to .^rriun (lib. vii). Diodorus Siculus speaks also particu- 
larly of Hephsestion's funeral pile. 

Cf. Ciimic de Caylus, Le bikher tl'HepI sestior, in the Mem. Mead. Insa: xxxi. 76 — Quatr. de Quincy. on the same, in Ihe Menu 
de Vhstitul, C I asse d'H st. et Lit. Mnc. iv. p. 395, with a plate. 

The custom of honorin? by festivals the anniversary of the death of friends and eminent per- 
sons was followed by snine Christians of the early ages, in the celebrations termed /juprvpuv 
y£vt.B\in. "These festivals were preceded by vigils, and celebrated around the graves of the 
martyrs, where their lives, were read, and eulogies pronounced, the sacrament administered, 
and public entertainments given gratuitously by the rich." 

See L. Cnleinan, Aniiq. of Christian Church, p. 441. — /. P. Schwahe, De Veneralione er^a Martyes in prim. Ecclesia. Lips. 
1748. 4. 

§ 187. The sepulchral montinnents of distinguished men were built often 
with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also frequently erected to 
them in other spots, where their ashes were not deposited. 

1. In early times, the Greeks were accustomed to place their dead .in repositories, 
made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were sometimes made repo- 
sitories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered eminent public services. But 
in later ages it became the general custom to bury the dead without the cities and 
chiefly by ihe highways. At Athens the most common place of burial was near the 
road leading to the PeiraRUs. outside of the Itonian gate, which on that account was 
styled the burial gate (>7pia( TriJXai) ; those who had fallen in battle, however, were buried 
in the ouier Cerameicus, at the public expense. Graves at first were mere openings 
dug in the earth, imn^'aia. Soon there was a custom of paving and arching them with 
stone. . The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound 
of earth (V'V'") ; whirh sometimes had a circular basis of masonry {Kprjmg). On this a 
rude stone {^;ja) was placed afterwards; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a cippus 
)r truncated column ; at length, larger and more imposing monuments were built. 

2. The terms p 'npa and p'r]pzlov were applied to designate the whole structure, includ- 
ing the receptacle for the remains and the monum.ental erections. Two parts are dis- 
rrin^nated ; \\) the i^ratJe strictly, called '^vkt], (nTfiXatou, rvp^og, Td(pos, iipiov, which last means 
specially the portion underground ; (2) the ^-pace around it, usually fenced with poles or 
a sort of balustrade, called ^piyKo^, (TKhrrj, -rrspioiKo-^opih cpKog, arjKog; within this space the 
monumental pillars {(jrfjXai) and ornaments were erected. — The various monuments have 
been discriminated under four l;ieads ; 1. arnXai, designating upright tablets terminating 
in an oval heading called eTHOnpa, but applied to any form of sepulchral pillars ; 2. Kioi'sg, 
t;olumns ; 3. rpiiTrr at, flat horizontal tablets; 4. >ipMa or vatSia, small buildings in the 
tbrm of temples. — On the pillars, or other structures forming the tomb, were placed 
inscriptions {'m^'pa l>ai) ; and often images of the deceased {dydXpara) , and also other orna 
'Upnts with devices denoting their character and pursuits or particular a<;hieve- 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONUMENTS FOR THE DEAD. 223 

ments. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on thai 
of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and cyUii- 
der. Tombs adorned with sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered at Athens and 
other places. Some of the most remarkable Greek tombs were recently discovered 
in Lycia. 

See De Boze, Descript. d'un Tombeau, &c. in the Mem. de VAcnd des Inscr. iv. 64S.—Archsolo?ia, (as ci'.ed P. IV. § 243. 3>, 
vol. xiii. p. 280, on a Greek sepulchral Monument ; with a plale. — Also, specially, Becker's Chancles ; and Stachdlcis, Die Grabei 

der Hellenen. Berl. 1?37. On the tombs of Lycia, C. Fellows, Aceount of Discoveries in Lycia, a Journal kept during- a sec nrl 

Excursion in Asia Minor. Lond. IS41. 8. with thirly-eight plates. Cf C. FtUaws, Journal during an Excursion in Asia Minor 
Lond. 1839. 8. with twenty-two plates. 

3. Cenotaphs (K£voTd(l)ia, Kcvfipid) were monuments erected for the dead, which were not the 
repositories for their remains. They were raised both for persons who had never obtained a 
proper funeral, and also for snch as had received funeral honors in another place. It was a 
notion ofthe ancients, that the ghosts of un buried persons could not be admitted into the regions 
of the blessed without first wandering a hundred j'ears in misery ; and if one perished at sea or 
where his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build an 
empty tomb, and by certain rites and invocations call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. 

4. A conuuon place of sepulture for many individuals was called TroXvavSpiov.— The term 
KoijXi]Tf\oiov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Christians, in accordance with their 
faith, that the grave is but a temporary sletping-place. The early Christians protested against 
the practice of burning the bodies ofthe dead, and followed the .Jewish custom of burying them. 
In the fourth century, an open space near the church was appropriated for the burial of [)rinces 
and the clergy, which was afterwards made comiiioi) to all the mt fibers ofthe church. In 
earlier periods, the Christians buried their '^ead chiefly in subterranean excavations, «hich were 
often of vast extent, and which in those days of persecution served at once as the home of the 
li zing and the repository of the dead. See $ 341. 8. 

5. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to 
such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor 
ofthe monument erected to JIausolus (cf. P. II. '$^ 72) occasioned the word IMausoleum 
xo be applied as a common name to such structures. It is said to have been more than 
400 feet in compass, surrounded by 36 beautiful columns. 

See Le. Caylus, Tombeau de Mansole, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvi. 321. — Sainte Croix, Tomb, de Maus. in the Mem. de Vln- 
ititut, C 1 a s s e A' Hist. &c. ii. 506. 



Aie.xanuer (.ci. Jirrian. \i. ;CH) ; Muiit;, iii>\vt; vt;r, ueciare ii id iie a. iimi;; iiioueii, siinciurt;. y^i. 

J\Iorier, cited P. IV. .$ 243. 3 Fig. 2 represents a structure called jSbialom's Pillar, which 

stands near Jerusalem (cf P. I. $ 168 b). In the time of Josephus there was a nsarhle structure 
by this name, said to have been reared by Absalom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). Tlie one here given is, 




PLATE XXVI a. 



ATTIC Civil. INSTITUTIONS. 



Classes of the Population. 

These were — Citizetu, XloXlraL ; Residents, MiTOLKoi ; 

Slaves, AovXoi ; and Strangers, 'S.ivoi. 
TloXlTai., divided by Cecrnjis into 4 Tribes, iHXai ; 

Each <tvXii intr 3 Races, ifpaTpia',, "EdvTj ; 

Each $parp{a into 30 Kindreds, Vivr), 'VpiaKadtg ; 

His Tiibes, K£«:po7rtj, Airdx^MV, 'AKTaCa, IlagaXCa. 
Tribes, by Clisthenes, ten ; afterwards, Iweioe. 
Solon's 4 Clasies, TVt.VTanocnoixiSLii.voi., 'Inntl^, 

ZtvylTat, 6^T£S ; acurd ng to weallh. 
A division also into 174 Arnj.oi, or Wards. 



V^arious Public Officers. 



1. For the Executive. 

The Eleven, 'Oi "ErdtKa ; a sort 
of Sheriffs the No/xo^vAaKtj 
perhaps the same. 

The Lexiarchi, Ari\tagxoi \ six 
chief; 30 subordinate. 

The Toxntx, Tolorai ; 1000. 

2. For the Legislature. 

T\ie President 'ETrKTrdTfj^ 

of Senate, t'^j BovXrj^. 

The President 'ETTicrroTjjs 

of .Assembly, t^j ' EK.KXr](nas- 
The Proedri, Ilpotupoi. 
T\\e Prytanes, XlQVravtXs- 
The Nomotii •Jre, No/ioSirot. 
The Syndics, 'E.vv6ikol. 
The Orators, "PijropES, same as 

Z-vv/jyopoi. 
The Ephydnr, 'E0f)(Jcop, having care 
I of the Clepsydra. 
The Syngraphs, Svvypa^if s ; 30, ' 

who collected the votes. 
The Clerks, rpa^/iarttj. 
Heralds, KrjgviCiS 
Ambassadors, Ilptcr/Jtrf. 
The Pylagori, JlvXaydpoi, delegates 

to the 'AfKpiiCTVovla. 

3. Connected with the 

Courts. 

The Areopagus, 'AgeioTrayXrai. 

The fleliastse, 'ilXiaaral. 

The Ephelx, 'Erpirai.. 

The Tribe-kings, ^vXopacriXetq. 

The Paredri, Ilapt^poi, who sat in 

Courts held by Archons. 
Dicasts, AiKaiTTal. 
Accountants, Aoyto-raJ. 
Directors, 'EvdvvoX, 
Surnntnners, KA^Topej. 
Ushers, KiyKXC^t^. 

4. For Public Works and 
Lands. 

Supertnte7iJents 'E;no"TrfTai 
of Buildings, ruiv 'Epywv. 

Superintendents ^KnitTTdTai, 
of Waters, riav {)Saruiv. 

Guard of Founts, Kpr)VO<livXal. 

Surveyors C IVays, 'Odonoiol, 
of \ (Vails, Tet.xorcoi.ol. 

Aslyiiomi, 'A(TTvv6fi,oi,, having care 
of streets, &c. 



Ckrouchi, KXrjgovxoi, to divide 
lands in colonies; applied also to 
the settlers. 

5, For the Treasury. 

Chief Tamias, Taficas TfjS Aiot- 
K'fjo-tMS ; for 4 years, or 5. 

Sub-Treasurers, Tap-iovxci ; 
Ta/tia? Tiijv o'Tpa.Tt.uiTiKojv, 
Tap.las '"'ui' ^eu)(itKuiv, &c. 

Collectors of Fines, npd/CTopij. 

Tax-gatherers, 'K/cAoytij. 

Hellenotamix, ' EXXrjvoTapi.Cai, for 
the Tribute from Greek allies. 

Poletx, IIoiA^Tat, ten overseers of 
sales. 

Theori, Q'.iagol, deputies with pre- 
sents for fes'ivals, &c. 

.Assessors of taxes, 'ETriypa^ElJ. 

Registers of accounts, Aiaypa^tij. 

Auditors, 'AvTiypatpzl^. 

Receivers, 'AnoSiKrai. 

Colacretx, KiuXaKperal, for money 
due to the temples. 

Searchers, on Debts, Zr]T7)Tal, 
on Confiscations, Mdo-rijpej. 

6. Connected with Trade. 

The'Sitophylaces, 'Lit o<f>vXaKe%. 
The Silonx. Zltuivui. 
The Sitometra:, ZiTop.tTpai. 
Overseers of Port, 'ET;ifieXr]Tal 
'E/iTToptou, or Tutv veuipiixiv. 

r Weights, Nlerpovdp.oi, 
Inspectors \ r r i 

< Markets, ' Ayopavoj.'.oi, 
y_Fish, 'OTpovofioi. 
Pilots, Nav<J>S;AaK£j. 

7. For Manners and 
Morals. 

(Enoptx, ^Oivdnrai, to notice wine- 
mixing at banquets. 
Gynaxocosmi, Vvva'.KOK6crii,oi, to 

watch the dress of women. 
Gynieconorni, rvvaiKovd/ioi, to 

guard the conduct of wpmen. 
Phratores, ^pdroptj, to see to the 
. register of births. 
Sophronists, T.u)ippovl(TTai, over 

youth in Gymnasia. 
Orphanistm, 'Op<pavi.a-Tal, to take 

care of orphans. 
Epijcopi, 'EnKTudtroi, overseers of 

allied cities and colonies; occasional 

office. 



The Legislature. 

Assembly, 'EKKXrjcrCa, of all the XloXlrat,. 
Senate, BotA/y, of 400 at first; then 50O; 
finally 6.0 ; 50 from each tribe; by lot. 



The Executive. 

Archons, 'Ot "ApxovTts '■ Nine, by lot; the 
'En(uvvjj,os, the Bao-iAtij, the noAt'yxap- 
Xos, and the six Qiarp-odiTai ; forming the 
Slate Council. 



The Judiciary. 

Areopagus, 'ApttoTrayoj; at first, Swp?'£rnR. 
Epidelphiniiim, ' Enl AiXfpLvCuj, ^ in 
Epipalladmm, 'Erri UaXXadiui, I Actions 
Epipryla7iciirn,^E7TlUpvTavc(if>, ( of 
Enphrcaltinm, ' Ev ipearToZ, J Blood. 
Hdisa, 'HXiata, the HiKhest ; -v 
Five others ; Tlapd/Sva-Tov, [ in Civil 

TpCyujvov, Kaivdv, To inl ^ .Actions 

Avxov, and To MtjtCxov, J 

The Disetetx, AiaiTrjTal ; two kinds ; public, 

nXrjpoTol ; private, diptrol ; Arbitrators or 

Referees, 
The Forty, Tta-a-apdKovTa, a Circuit Court j 

for the Ar) /JLOL. 
The Nautodicx, tiavroSlKai, in naval affairs ; 

at Piraeus. 
The Exetastx, 'EHraa-Tal, of 10 Aoyio-ral 

and 10 'EvOvvol ; on accounts of officers. 
The Thesmvthelx, QtaixoOirai, on subjects 

not falling toother Courts. 



Actions in taw. 

Public, Aiicai dTfjxdo-iai. ; which included 
rpa0»;, $do-ts, "EvSuli^, ^Anaytuyi), 
'E(/>^y7)crij, 'AvdpoX-qipla, 'F.igayytXCa ; 
under the Vpaipy came the highest crimes; 
mvrder, &c. 

Private, AlKai iSlai; including actions for 
trespass, BAu/J/yj ; theft, &c. 



Punishments. 

Fine, 7,rjixia ; Disgrace, 'A7ip,Ca ; Slavery, 
AovXtia ; Branding, Lilyiia ; Poning, 
St^Atj ; Bonds, At<TjJ,oi ; Banishment, I 
ivy^ ; Death, Qdvaroi;; 'Oo"Tpa(ci(r//dy 
was Bnnishmeiit for 10 years. 



Civic Honors. 

First Seat, YipoiSpla ; Statues, 'EiKrfvty ; 
Crowns, Uricpaifot ; Exemption, 'AriXeta ; 
Pensicni, by £tT9j(rts kv Tlpvravutf}. 



Revenues. 

Fines, TifjL'fiiia-ra; Tributes, idpoi.; Rents, 
TiXr] ; Contributions, 'Ejs^opaZ ; Seriices, 
AuTovpyiat ; the latter including Xopij- 
yla, Vvixvacnapx^"'') 'E<Triaa-i%, and 
'V piqpapxia. 



Expenditures. 

Puhlic Works, "Epya dTjfidma ; 

Festal Shoi/js, rio/iTra!, k. t. \. 

Donatives, Aiavofial ; 

Thiatric Fee, AiujfSoXCa ; 

Pay of Senate, MitrBos liovXtvrtKd^ ; 

Pay of Assembly , Mio-Bbs E(c/cA7;aia<7TiKds ; 

Pay of Army. MtcrSos ^.TparimTiKt^ ; 

Pay of Navy, JNIitrfldj Novrticos ; &c. 



224 



EOMAN ANTiaUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather than anliqu'- 
ties to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, and the extent ol 
{heir empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and a few remarks upon them 
will aid- in getting a better view of the Roman antiquities, and enable one tc 
understand and appreciate more correctly the people and their more important 
peculiarities. Some notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and 
then something respecting the Romans themselves. 

§ 189. According to the common accounts of history, the city of Rome was 
founded 752 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand-children of the Alban king 
Nurnitor. It was situated not far from the mouth of the Tiber, in Latium, a 
province in middle Italy. In the beginning it was of small extent, confined to 
Mount Palatine, on which it was built. The number of inhabitants did not 
amount to 4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called op- 
pidum., while the better part, later built, was called urhs^ which became at 
length a general name for Rome. It was first ])eopled by some families from 
Jllba Lons^a^ and afterwards by various accessions (cf. P. IV. § i09, 110); 
partly of the vagabond and worthless from the neighboring people of Italy. 

1 u. The Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the Palatine, and at last five Tther 
mountains or hills were mcluded in the city, and thence was derived the epiihet f.t'pli- 
coll'is. The first walls around the city were low and weak ; Tarquinius IMiscus and 
Servius 'I'ullius improved them. 

2iL. Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of the city 
were the capture and burning of it by the Gauls, 385 B. C, and the erection oi' nu- 
merous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and alter the conflagraiion under Nero. 
In tie two last-mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly ei larged and adorned, and 
continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors down to the time of Ho- 
norius. In his reign occurred the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under 
Alaric, A. D. 410. The city was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodoric. But by 
that disaster, and the still greater devastations of the Gothic king Totila, A. D. 547, 
it lost much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the ages following. 

3 u. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, there is 
a Vast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of tlie latter we find only 
certain traces and monuments, and these are in part mere ruins and fragments. 

p. Macquier, Romische Jahrbllcher, oder chroiiol. Abriss der Gesch. Roms ; aus dem Franz, rr.it Anmerk. von C. D, Beth 
Leip^. 1783. 8. 
A more particular notice of the topography of Rome is given in P. I. §.^ 51-71. 

§ 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the republic 
and beginning of the imperivil monarchy, the population was very great. The 
number of citizens may be estimated at 'three hundred thousand, and the whole 
number of residents at two millions and upwards. 

" Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only form conjec- 
tures. Z/p,<?///s computes them, in its most flourishing stale, at -four miiliohs." [Adam.) 
Tacitus (Annals, L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in the rei^n of Claudius the 
number of Roman citizens amoiuited to nearly seven millions; it is supposed that 
this numhrr must have included the citizens in o'her places besides the city of Rome 
itself. — Gibbon has the following remarks on the population of the Roman empire: 
"The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of ci'izcns, ot pro- 
ymcials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of accuracy as tlie 
importance of the object would deserve. We are inibrnicd that when tlie emperor 
Claudius exercised the oflif-e of Censor, he took an account of six millions nine hun- 
dred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, who wiMi the proportion of women and 
children must have amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of 
subjects, of an inferior rank, was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighin/i with 

225 



226 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

attention every circumstance which could mtiuence the balance, it seems proLuble 
that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there 
were citizens, of either sex and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal 
in number to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. I'he total amount of this im- 
perfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons ; i. 
degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the 
most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of govern- 
ment." 

Pe la Mcille. Sur la population libre, &c. de la Republ. Rom. in the Mtnt. de Vlii'^tittit, C I asse de Hist, et Lit. ^nc. vol. x. 161. 
R. IVnllace, Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind in Ancient and Modern 'J'imes. Edinb. I'o'i. 8. — Hume, Essay on the 
Populous ess of Ancient Nations. — Amer. Quart. Registtr, vol. ix. 140. 

§ 191. Originally the authority of Homulus extended scarcely six thousand 
paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings considerably enlarged 
ihe dominion of Rome. During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly 
ana widely spread, and at length, by numerous and important conquests, a 
great part of the known world was subjected to her sway. 

1 u. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire were the Euphrates 
on the east, the cataracts of the Mile, the African deserts, and Mt. Atlas on the south, 
the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some 
of the succeeding emperors, even these hmits were transcended. 

The following countries were subject to Rome: in Asia; Colchis, Iberia, Alba 
nia, Ponfus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palcestina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
Biihynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of Asia Minor : in Africa; 
Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gaetulia, Africa Propria, Numidia, and Mauretania: 
and in Europe ; Itaha, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhagtia, Noricum, Illyricum, Ma- 
cedonia, Epirus, Grsecia, Thracia, Moesia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to 
these were a number of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to 
which Britain may be added. 

2u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The empe- 
lor Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and separated Italy, Spain, 
Gaul, Aquitania and Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into provinces. — One 
of the last changes of this kind was made by Consiantine the Great, who divided the 
empire into four Praefecturates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for 
the government of which he appointed a number of new magistrates (cf. '^ 309. 3). 

The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its various changes, is found in Oniipjirii Panvinii Romanum Im- 
perium. in the Thesaurus Antiq. Rom. of Grajuiws, vol. i. — Cf. Gihton, Decl and Fall, &c. ch. 1 

§ 19-2. In a few centiiries the Romans acquired a greatness and power, which 
is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all history. 

1 It. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warhke character, for 
which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior 
prowess consiituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agricul- 
tm-e were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly occupied in 
their constant wars; the proportion of soldiers compaied with the rest of the citizens 
is estimated to have been as one to eight. All the early Romans felt an equal interest 
in defending their country, because the conquered territory was divided equally among 
them. In addition to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of 
maintaining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the govern- 
ment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other nations. 

2 m. To treat of these topics belongs to history ; yet a brief view of the principal revoliuiona 
in Roman affairs seems to be necessary for our oliject. 

^ 193 u. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. Accord- 
ing to the common accounts (not altogether certain, however,) six other kings suc- 
ceeded him ; Niima PompiJiiis, Tullus Ho^tilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinins fris- 
o/s, Servius Tullius, and Tarquitiius Superhus ; men of active enterprise, who con- 
tributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circum- 
stances or events, during the regal form of government, were the division of the peo- 
ple into Tribes, Curiae, Classes, and Centuries ; the separation of Patricians and Ple- 
beians ; the establishment of the senate, and of the religious worshij) ; the settlement 
of the mode of computing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxa- 
tion ; and the introduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that 
the principles of the government under this first form were not strictly monarchical, 
but rather of a mixed character, and really laid the foundation of the subsequent ad- 
vantageous system of the republic. During this whole period, the Romans were in- 
\olved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war contributed to their success, 
for they never would make peace imtil they had conquered. The regal governm.ent 
continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 509, because the last king, Tarquinius 
^uperbns, had provoked the nol.>ility by arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by 
Teavv imnosiiions. 



p. III. INTRODUCTION. 22"* 

The immediate occasion of Tarquiii's expulsion and the abolition of th^ monarchy, is said to 
have been the vile abuse cominitled upon Lucreiia, wife of Cidlatinus, by Sexlus Tarquinius, 
the king's son. — Cf. Goldsmith' s Rome, by Finnock ; p. b5. ed. Pliila. Iti35. 

§194w. Rome was now o, free state, at first aristocraiical, and then for a peri )d 
governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustained by their 
tribunes, constantly increased. During tliis time the dominion o^ the Romans, a& 
well as the vigor oi their constitution was augmented ; their legislation was judicious ; 
and their morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable period they maintained an 
elevated national character, in which simplicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit 
o{ enterprise, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest 
patriotism, were prominent traits. — ''rhe most brilliant era in ihe Roman republic was 
ihe first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during 
the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in posses- 
sion of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corrupiion of morals ad- 
v^anced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the 
(victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and olHcers amidst the 
luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each ot these 
things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and effemi- 
nacy, the Romans now suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, 
although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations 
an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. 

A vatuable worlf on this subject is the following : Chr. Meiners, Geschich'e iles Verf.ills der Sjlieii und dtr Saiisvty;f,i5suns der 
Romer. Leipz. 17?2. 8 — Also, by same, Geschichte des Verfatls der Silleii, Wissenscliafleu uiid Sprache der Ronier in den erstea 
Jahrhunderten nach Ch Geburt. Wien und Leipzig, 1791. S. — More niiimle, I'ut especially inslructivf. is Ad. Ft7-gusoiVs Rise and 

Prog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. V. § 299. 7. On the state of morals in ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit uf the Pilg' ims, vol. iv. 

p. 579. 

^195u. Selfishness, avarice, and lust of power were immediate consequences of 
this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy disorders in the 
state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. 
Octavius at last gained the point, and tinder the name of Augustus was the first pos- 
sessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourish- 
ing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulers. But 
much more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who dis- 
graced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these; 
the already prevaihng corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession 
the most violent and fatal internal commotions; the right ot the strongest triumjihed 
over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to prop up the sink- 
ing dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin. 

GoldstnitK's Rome, and Gibbon''s Decline and Fall of the Ronjan Enjpire. Cf. P. V. § 299. 7. — Bridge's Roman Empire under 
Constantine the Great 

§ 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their 
history must be crou'ded with interestincr and instructive incidents : and that a 
familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. 
The utility of studying the Roman antiquities needs, therefore, no further re- 
commendation. 

1 u. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge, of the antiquities in 
order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages, 
which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every one, in 
fact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refinement and t.iste. It is essential 
as a help in reading the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved, 
and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 

2 u. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn, 
are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the historians. There are 
also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, 
and being strangers, many things must strike them as more important and remarkable 
ihan they might seem to the native citizens.. Anfiong the latter class of writers are 
Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appiaii vmd Dion Cassius, and, even some 
later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &c. ^ome aid may be derived also from 
the writings of the Christian Fathers. 

3 u. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science. 
I'he materials drawn from the sources just named, and various others, have been di- 
gested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches 
of the subject have been examined in more full deiail. Yet this has perhaps never 
been done with sufficient kn .wledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimi- 
nation : the essential has not been sufl^iciently distinguished from the less important, 
nor the general and universal from the particular and local ; nor has there h.eeii suita- 
ble care to note the periods in which the customs and principles were introduced. 
made prevalent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice ra;hcr thai' 



228 



ROMAN ANTIUUITIES. 



avoid in tlie brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot oe lully re- 
moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. 

E. rialtner, rV:er Wissenschafiliche BegrJndujig und BehandU.iig drr Antiquitaten, inbesonders der Rora. Maro. 1812. 8*— 
/. A. IVolf, VorleiS.;n°;en Uber Alterthuins wisseiischaft, &c as cited K V. § 7. 9. 

^ 1!'7. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 



1. Tlie largest CuUectimis of separate Ireatices are the two 
Sbllowin" : 

Jo. Georg. Grxviu%, Thesaurus An'iquitatum Roniaiiaruii] ; 
c. fig. Traj ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 vols fol. (For an account 
nf the contents of tliis, see Appendix to Kennutt, cited below.) 

J. M. Pulenits, Supplement to GrsBvius and Gronovius. Ven. 
1737. 5 vols. fol. 

Alh- Henr. de Salleturre, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. 
Com. 1716-19. 3 vols fol. V 

Very useful on account of its copiousness and its good refer- 
ences, is Sam. fitisci Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. Com. 1737. 
3 vols. fol. 

As a sys'eni formally arranged, may be mentioned, Jo. Rosiiii 
Antiq. Roman. Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. Tho. Dempslcri. 
Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. J. F. Reitzms.) Amst. 1743. 4. 

Some pertinent treatises are contained. in B. Ugolinus, Thesau- 
rus Antiquita'um Sacrarum, complectens selec'issima clarissimo- 
rum virorum Opuscula ; in quibus Vet. Hebraenrum Mores, Rilus 
Sacri, &c. illuslranlur: Opus ad Philologiam Sacram et Profanam 
utilissimum. Venet. 1741-69. 34 vols. fol. 

Meusel. as cited § 240, vol. 3d exhibits the writers on Romsn 
Antiquities, &c. 

2. Un 'er the class of Mrinualii are the following : 

Thos. Godwyn, Roman Antiquities, 15th ed. Lond. !689. 4. 

S. G Slnivius, Antiquitalum Ron)ar]arum Suntagma. Jen. 
1701. 4. 

IV. Baxter. Glossarium Antiq Romanarum. Lond. 1726. 8. 

Bas. Keiinett, Romae Antiquse Notitia, or the Antiquities of 
Rome, in two Parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have been many 
liter editions ; first American, Phil. 1822. 8. 

G. H. Nieiivort, Rituum, qui olim apud Romanes obtiniierunt, 
succincta e.xplicatin. I4lh ed. Berl. 1784. 8. " - 

C. G. Swartz, Observationes ad Nitwporrtii Compendium an- 
liquita'um Romanarum (ed. .i3. M. Nagel). Altd 1757. 8. 

C. J H Haymanii, Anmerkungen Uber NieuporOs Handbuch 
der rnniischen AUerthilmer. Dresd. 1786. 8. 

Christ. Celtarius, Compendium Antiq. Rom. cum adnot. J 
F,. Im. Malchii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. 

G. C. Materntn von Cilano, AusfUhrliche Abhandlung der 
romischen Alterthilmer, herausgegeben von G. C. Mhr. Altona, 
1775-76. 4 vols 4. 

C. G. M^^ni Antiquitas romana, inprimis juris romani. 
Gott. 1779. 8. 

P. F. A. Nilsh, Besrhreibung des hiuslichen, wisse.ischaftli- 
chfn, sitllichen, gottesdienstlichen, politischen und kriegerischen 
Zustandes der Romer, n.ich den verschiedenen Zeitaltern der Na 
lion, by /. H- M. Erjicsti. Krfiirt, 1812. 2 vols, g.— Same work 
abridged (by Ernesli). Erf. 1812. 8. 

K. Ph. Moritz, ANGOTS \, oder Rom's AlterthOmer. 1st part 
(of the sacred rites of 'he Romans). Berl. 1791-97. 8. 2d p^rl 
(of the civil and private atVairs), ed. by F. Rambach. Berl. 1796. 

Alexander Adartt, Roman Antiquities, &c. Edinb. 1791. 8. 
Often reprinted. An improved ed. by 7ames £ot/d. Edinb. IS34. 
12mo. Another ed. by X /J. Major. Oxf. 1837. 8.— Transl. into 
German, vvith improvements, by J. L. Meyer (3d ed ) Erl^ng. 
1818. 2 vols. 8. 

/. K. Unger, Sitten und Gebrauche der RCiiner. Wien. 1805-6. 
i vols. 8. with plates. 

G. G. Kopke, Antiquitates Romanae, in xii. tab. deser. Berl. 
1803. 

L. Schaaff, Anticjjitilten und Archiiologie der Griechen und 
Rrtmer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. Alterthumskunde). Magdeb. 
1820. 8. ' 

F.Creutzer, Abriss der rftniischen Antiquit^Jlcn zum Gebrauche 
nei Vorlesuigen. Leipz- IS24..8. 

J. P. Ftiss. Roman Antiquities. Translated from the German. 
■ -vf. 1840. 8. 



The 5h vol. of (i'o//'i Vorlesungen, as cited P. V. § 7. 9, treaw 
of Roman .Antiquities. 

Less ex'ensive, but. useful and instructive, is the following 
J. H. I.. Meierotto, Ueber Sitten und Lebensart der Romer, in 
verschiedenen Zeiten der Republik. Berlin, 1814. 8. (Ed. Pli. 
BuHmami). 

Worthy of mention also is, lVilcock''s Roman Conversations, or 
Descriptions of the Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 8. 

The following are abridgments : 

Abriss der griech. und romisch. Alterthilmer, von Cfir. Fried. 
Haacke. Stendal, 1S2I. 

Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for Classical 
Schools; by Clis. K. Dillaway. Boston, 1831; 2i ed. 1835. 

Tho^. .S. Can; Manual of Rom. Antiquities. Lond. 1836. 12. 

3. We may also refer here to Muntfaiicon's Anfiquite Ex- 
pliquee, as illustrating by its plates and descriptions ijo/nan as 
well as Greek Antiquities (cf. § 13). 

The following work contains many excellent delineations; 
Raccolta Tavole rappresent. i costumi religiosi, civili e militai^ 
degli antichi Egiziani, Etruschi, Grecie Romani, traiti dagli anti 
chi tnonumenii, — disegrate, ed incise in rame, da Lorenzo Rot 
cheggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing one hundred plates each. 

As pertaining especially to the subject of costume, we add, 
Bardoii, Costume des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 vols. 4. 

A. Lens., Le Costume, ou Ess.ii sur les habillements et les 
usages de plus, peupl de I'Antiquile, prouve par les monuments. 
Liege, 1776. 4. 

Thos. Hope, The Costume of the Ancients. Lond. 1812. 2 vols 
8. with numerous engravings in outline. -New ed. Lond. 1841 
2 vols 8. 

Particularly, Maillot and Martin, Recherches sur les cos 
tumes, les mcEurs, &c. des anciens peuples, &c. — orne de 296 
planches, au trait. Par, 1804-6. 3 vols. 4. " The first volume 
contains, in great detail, the costume, manners, &c. of the Ro- 
mans, from Romulus to the last emperors' of Constantinople.. 
The engravings are taken from medals and n)onumeiits of each 
epoch." 

4. It is proper also to refer here to works illustrating the 
remains of Roman Antiquity. 

See P. IV. §§ 130, 138, 187, 188, I9l, 226, 243. 

F. A David, Antiquites d'Herculanum. Par. 17SO-1S03. 
12 vols. 4. 

JV. Stukeley. Itinerarium Curiosum, &c. Lond. 1760. 2 vols, 
in one, fol. with two hundred copper plates; containing notices 
of Roman monuments in England. 

The Publications of the Inslituto di Corre^pondenza Archto- 
logica, a society for archaKological correspondence, founded in 
Rome by several distinguished scholars and antiquaries. The 
Biillelino dcW Inslituto, commenced 1S29, contains brief notices 
of new discoveries and new works, with other articles of special 
interest. By the title of Mo^ixunenti Inediti, the annual volume 
of plates is designated. The Annali delV Instituto, the chief 
publication, gives ess,(y3, reviews, and extended descriptions. 
Gerhard, Kestner, RaoulRochelte, Bock, Panofka, Hirt, Mo.'iet, 
Millingen, SiC, have been contributors 

5. On various points it will be useful so consul lirdna, 
Pauly, iVcber, Foshrune, &c. as cUed § 13. 5. 

Also, F. Sabhathier, Institutiorj, Manners, and Custf.ms of the 
Ancient Nations. Translated fum the French by P. Stockdale. 
IV. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 

6 Other references to authors on particular topics ite givei 
under the sections treating of those topics. 

Lockhart''s Valerius, Btdxver^s Pompeii, and H'are's Letters 
from Palmyra, are fic'ions professing to ( xhibit the state of man 
«r» in the first centuries after Christ. 



P III RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 229 

§ IPe. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as ^e did the Greek, under 
four distinct branches; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of re//g?*or.i, a'y// 
gover?iment, war, and privafe life. 

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 

§ 199. As the word reliufion is of Roman orio^in, it may be well to notice the 
ideas attached to this term in the Latin lang^uage. Originally, religio seems to 
have signified every sort of serious and earnest exertion, to which one was im- 
pelled by external or internal motives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to ex- 
press the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures; 
and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. 
In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and practices 
pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as 
the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will 
lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deport- 
ment, the word religio was also naturally employed as comprehending in its 
meaning this correctness of morals. 

§ 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must 
revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 189). There doubtless 
existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome various rel.^ious customs 
and the worship of various divinities; and it is not easy to irace out their 
gradual rise and establishment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, 
and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications; 
bence the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology 
and worship (cf. P. II. § 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions differ 
from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are tlie 
same. The Romans also adopted several religious usages not practiced by the 
Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries and auspicea, which were borrowed from 
the Etrurians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence 
of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. 

§ 201. The religion ot the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately 
connected with their politics. It was often em.ployed as a means of promoting 
secret designs of state, vVhich the projectors knew how to render agreeable and 
desiral)le, by the help of superstition. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the 
people were determined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enter- 
prises derived their most effective stimulus from this source; and not seldom 
it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country 
was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and 
festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear towards the 
gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the 
gods were considered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this 
belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart 
dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency 
of the gods therein. 

§ 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romnlu3 made it a prominent 
object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and 
discordant materials of which the first inhabitants were composed. Still more 
carefully was this object pursued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the 
chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, 
as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretend- 
ed interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater 
respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental principles of Nurna's 
system, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously.- 
As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religiouii 
notions of the more intelligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; 
but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common 
faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cumbrous by 
the deification of the emperors. 

On Numa, cf. F. V. § 447.— for a particular account of the s:ods worsliiped by the Romans, we refer to the part (II.) of tbiK wor» 
which treats cf the gulje t of Mvthrlogy. The Roman division or classification of their gods is nolii id in (P. 11.) ^ 9. 



230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§1 203. Tlie great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large number ol 
temples^ of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred [foui 
hundred and twenty]. The name of temples, lenipla,, however, properly belong 
ed only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs 
by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were 
distinguished from the scdes sacrse^ although the names are often used inter- 
changeably. Their form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangu- 
lar oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- 
monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the building, and 
also after a remodeling or repairing of it.; — The principal parts of a temple were 
commonly the sanctuary (^cella sancliur, adykim), the interior, appropriated for 
the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various pur- 
poses. The temples, however, were often used, not only for religious solenmi- 
ties, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They 
usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least 
ornamented with them on the front. 

Ou the structure of arioieni temples, cf. P. IV. § 234, and references there given. On the temples at Rome, cf. P. I. §§ 58-60.— 

See Simon, Temples de Tancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. i. !99. 

§ 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks, 
with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with 
consecrated offerings of various kinds, called dnnaria. Every thing connected 
with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was. devoted. — 
A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings 
were there erected, was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a 
more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where 
stood the images of the gods, one or more; but it is often used in a more gene- 
ral sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and 
only guarded by a wall, were termed sacel/a. Among the groves (/(/c?') conse- 
crated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, 
Egeria, Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. 

§ 205. Jllars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then 
inscribed merely with , the nariie of the god to whom they were dedicated; usu- 
ally, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between 
a//an« and arae ,- the former were raised higher (a//a ar«), and were used for 
offering the sacrificial victim; the latter were lower, and were used in offering 
the prayer and libation. The fortner were more usually consecrated to the 
celestial gods; the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and 
were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 

1 21. There was also a third kind of altar, andabris or enclahris, a sort of labia, on 
which the sacrificial utensils were placed and ihe entrails of victims were laid by the 
Haruspices. The mensa sacra was sometliing still difi'erent, a table on which incense 
was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as various arti- 
cles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some 
metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white 
color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of 
victims. '1 he form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not un- 
frequently they were adorned with sculpture and imnge-work. 

Differfint forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXVll. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enclabri$. 
Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's alfar of burnt offerinir (cf 2 Citron, iv. 1); given l)y Pri- 
t/cawj, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins; copied and described in C(iLiiiet,\i\t\.. 
fec'vol. iii. p. 144, H57, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E. is an altar erected as a sepulchral nionnnient, 
in honor of a Roman emperor; it is higlily ornamented wiih sculptures, and bears an inscrip- 
tion ; tiie letters D M stand for Diis Muvibxis. Tiie elevations at the corners \\> this and in fig. 
H, siiow what is desisnated by the phrase '■'■horns of the uliur.'' — In Plate XX. are other furms 
of the all ir. In the Sup. Plate 30, are four oth' rs ; on the aliar of Jv/iiier is seen the bust of 
the god, and below it an eagie iiolding a thunderbolt in his claws ; bt^neaih this, in the original 
monument, ib the inscription, I. O. M. IVS.SA OCTAVl.\ SVCCESSA P.; i. e. Jovi Optimo 
Majiiiiii^jussn, Octaiiia Succest-a posuil. On the altar of Bacchus, a Bacchanal is dancing over a 
prostrate wine-cup, holdini; another cup in one hand and the thyrsus in the other. 'Vx\e. altar 
of Mtptune is one of the four discovered at Anliiim (Nelltino) ; on it is sciilptuied Neptiiiie with 
ihe tridetil in his left hand atid a dolphin in his right; above this is inscrilted, in the origintil, 
ARA NEPTVNI. The tripod was (Sften used as the form of an altar to Apnilo; Ihe very re- 
tnarkable one given in this Plate" corresponds to a rep.resentaiion on a silver coin of (Joiisul M. 
.•Tim. Lepidiis. — See Movifancoji (as cited P. II. $ 12), ii. 242. 1.12. Sup. ii. 5().— For various a'targ 
IS sepiilclira.' erections, see Montfaiicon, vol. v. and Snppl. vol v. — Roman altars have repcat- 
»4lv been found in England. ArchcBulogia, as cited P. IV. $ 32. 5. vol. iii. p 119, 324 



PLATE XXVll. 




32 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribins, and garlands of herbs inc 
/lowers. Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among the Romans as well a? 
Greeks ',cf. § 6(>), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, tor ineolvent debtors 
and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be 
employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be 
confined there until they perished. 

§ 206. A (Treat variety of instruments and vessels, imsa sacra, were employed 
■n the sacrifices offered to the gods. 

] u. The most important were the following: the ax {hipninh, semris, d, d), or 
club {malleun, c), with which the victim was first struck; knives for stabbing {adtri, 
e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails {secespilcB) ; the 
censer (fhiirihulum, 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (acerra 
or arcula thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in dropping the wine upon the sacrifices {fruitus) ; 
a flat vessel in which the priests and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine {simpu- 
litm, b) ; broad dishes or bowls {patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims; 
an oblong vase with one or two handles {capedo, capedu7i.c.u.l n , copis, o, o) ; vessels to 
hold the entrails (ollce extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were brought to 
the altar {lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the fruit ofiered {cmtixtra) ; 
small tables with three legs {Iripodes); an instrument, having a tuft of hair, or the 
like, for sprinkling the sacred water {aspergillum, f) ; pans for the sacrificial fire {prm- 
fericula) ; metallic candlesticks {candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 

2. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the above 
specification, refer to the figures thus marked in nur Plate XXVII The figures marl^ed hy the 
letters are drawn from Montfanrnn, vol. ii. p. 150. Those marked hy the numerals are from 

Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. IV. J 2-26. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial apparatus ; 

fis. g shows the sacred fillet {vitui), which was siuof^times lunig from the neck ; fig 4 is a ladle 
(lia-iila); fig. 3, a phchi^r (arceiis, culuUas) used for the libations; these fiirures are taken from 
sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a teui[)le found at Pompeii ; fig. 
B exhibits a scene from the same altar; a magistrate in his robe is offering sacrifice; he holds 
in his hand a paJeraj the victim is led forward by the popaor culfmrins, who is uaked to his 
waist with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a vase or pitcher, and 
an older servant bearing a platter (.discus); hy his side is a mtisiciaii blowing the flute, followed 
by lictors with their fasces; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with 
garlands. — Fis. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Montfaucon from an ancient coin ; the 
augur's wand {litiais) is seen in the hand of the principal person. The grou[) of articles in- 
cluded in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to ilhistrrite also Hebrew 
and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will rmtice among them the sho- 
vel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the nmdern teapot, a fire-pan. jars, bowls, 
dishes, <fcc. cf Exod. xxv. 29. — Fig. a, is the sacred trumpet (tuba) sounded at hecatombs and 
other sacrifices. The straight trumpet was also used at sacrifices, as is seen in Plate.XXIX, and 
likewise the flute or clarionet, as is seen in Platn XXIX, and Plate XLV.— In Plate XLV. is seen, 
hanging from the sirdle of a priest (the one that h"lds the head of the victim) the case (vagina] 
for the knives; the same article is given in the Sup. Plate 31. fig 18. In this Plate also are 
various instruments of sacrifice , 1, 2. the acrrra and tiDirariuni ," 3. evclahris ; 4, ilivrihnli(7ii. as 
given by Montfaucon, differing from the form given in Plate XXVII., fig. 1 ; 5, cupis ; 6, 7. 10, 
forms of" the sinipidum ; 8. patera or patella; 9, the vessel given by Montfatjcon as the prcferi- 
cvlii7n, which he describes not as a pan fur holding the fire, but as a vessel for holding tiie wine 
of the libation ; l\,\7, cidtri; 19., tuba; 13, malleus f \A,Dolabra; \5, ser.uris ; ]^, seva, nr ser.es- 
pita ; \9, di.-cus, a broad shallow platter ; 20, o//a ,* 21, lituas ; Ii, candelabra; ^3, aspergiliam, 
aspersoriiim, or lustrica. 

§ 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into certain com- 
mon orders, or collecres. These were mostly established by the first kings; 
Romulus established the Luperci, Curiimes, Haruspices ; Numa, the Flaniines, 
Vesfalcs, Sa/ii, Augure^, and Feciales. During the republic the Rex sacrorum 
and the Epulones were introduced ; and under the emperors some others. — The 
Roman priests may be ranged in two general classes; those common /o all the 
gods (^omnium deorum sacr dotes); and those appropriated to a particular deity 
(uni numini addicti). Of the former were the Pontifices, Augnres, Quindecem- 
viri sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, 
Sodales Titienses, and Rex Sacrorum. Of the latter class were the Flamines, 
Salii, Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. 

§ 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by Numa, origi- 
nally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally more even to fifteen. 
The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maximus, who held the highest priestly 
office, dignity, and power. He was appoinied at first by the kings, subse- 
quently Ijy the college (Collegium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104 
B. C. by the people. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again 
taken from them. All the.other priests and the vestals were subject to the 
Pontifex Maximus. 

1 u. He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the festivals an'i 



111. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AUGURS. CLASSES OF PRIEST o. ))'^ 

the soIeniLities connected tlierewith, and the keeping of the records of public transac- 
tions {aitnalesj. He was also judge in many quesiions of right. — His dress was a 
loga pr(srtx(a, and his head-ornament a sort oi cap made of the skin of a victim and 

called gaJerus. Augustus assumed this office himself as emperor, which was done 

hkewise by his successors down to Graiian, who abolished it. 

2. 1 ho^e who held the office of Fontifex Maxmuis, are said to have resided in a 
public house called Eegiu (ci. '5\ 213). — '1 he hierarchy of the church of Rome is thought 
to liave been estabhshed on the model of the J'ontifex Maximus and ihe college of 
Poniifices. 

L. Bimard, Le Pontifical des Empr. Romains, in the Aft?;i. Acad. Iiiscr. xii. 355 ; xv. 3?. Cf. Ix. 115. Ou the Bnman pon- 

lifls, &c. cf. Moyh's Works, vol. i. — Beaufort, Republique Roniaine. 

§ 209. The .Jtigurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their name from 
consulting the flight of hirds, crngtiriufu, avigeriiu/i. 'I'hey were introduced 
from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a regular order by Numa. Their 
i>u:i)ber was originally three, then four, afterwards nine, and finally increased 
by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after 
B. C. 300, in part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called iMagisler CnUegii, 
and JJugur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple 
{Jrabea), a crooked staff {liiims), and a conical cap (sometimes called apex). 
Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds [auspiciuni), 
from which they predicted future events. They also explained other omens and 
signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain 
animals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 

1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acumlnHms, i. e. prognostics were drawn 
from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhesion of the 
lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The 
places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were lo be erecied, were con- 
secrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of I'heodo- 
sius the, Great. 'Ihe public Augurs oi the Roman people should be distinguished 
from the priva'e Augurs of the emperors. 

2. The omens, s/i2■7^o, -portenln, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or 
pretended to ibretell the future,' have been classed in five divisions. (1) From 
birds; chiefly the flight of some {aliles), such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards; but 
also the chattering and singing of others (oscines), such as the owl (bubo), crow {corvus, 
cur7iix,) ov cock igallus). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, light- 
ning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens oi either of these two kinds ihe augur 
stood on some elevated point {arx, teviplum), which was frequently called m/Quroforium, 
with his head covered with the Jcsna, a gown peculiar to the offi( e ; al;er sacrificing 
and oflering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four 
quarters (called lempJa) with his lituus, and waited lor the omen. A single omen was 
not considered significant: it must be cor.firmed by ano'her of the same sort. In 
whatever position the augur stood, omens on ihe left were by the Romans reckoned 
lucky, contrary to the notions of ihe (ireeks (cl- '^ 75); the explanation given of this 
disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; 
but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky emei.s would Le on his-riglit, 
while the Roman augur usually faced the south, and iherclore had the lucky omens 
on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on ihe left were sometimes called un- 
lucky among the Romans, and the lerm sinister came to s-igrify inijimpiiiovs, and 
dexter to mean propitious. (3) Prom chickens (pi/Ui) kept in a coop for the puipose, 
by the pnllarlus. The omen was taken early in ihe morning from their actions when 
the augur threw crumbs of com before them : if they lurnf tl away from it, or ate re- 
luctantly, it was an unlucky omen ; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking 
this augury was called Tripvdium. perhaps frcm the lioui ding of the corn when 
thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observing whether they appear 
ed in a strange place, or how they crossed ihe way, wheiher to ihe right or the left 
and the like (5) From various circumstances and events, which may' be included 
under the term arcideiits ; among these were sr:eezing, falling, hearing sounds, see 
ing images, spilling salt upon ihe table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. 
Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dirct. 

Ken.nelt, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv.— Cf. Morin, Les Augurs; and Simon, Les Pri-siges, in the Mnn. de I'jlcad. dct Iiiscr. i. 54 mO 
129.— Afai/o, Mylliology, i. 255. 

§ 210. The Haruspices wexe the priests who inspected the entrails of animals 

offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occurrences; they were calleJ 
extispices. They a))peared under Romulus and were established by him; it is 
doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only 
znd not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed froiti the 



834 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Ktrnrians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin; the dis- 
covery of the art {Haruspidna) was ascribed by fable to Tages, a son of Jupi- 
ter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty. 
Their overseer was styled Magisler Publicus or Sutnnius Haruspex. From the 
different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three 
classes, extispices, fulguratores, and prudigialores. For, besides observing the 
entrails of victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame 
smoke, &c., they also were consulted in relation to lightning and places o) 
buildings stricken by it, and they likev^ise explained prodigies and dreams. 

1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their motion, and 
the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing from the appear- 
ances, lliey called them exfa muta. On tlie other hand, the term iitare was us^d to 
signify an auspicious sacrifice. 

2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also the other reii- 
pious orders had ; these seem to have been accnutits of their oljservatioiis, memorials of thun- 
der and lightning, and ominous occurrences. Their art was at one time considered so imf)or- 
tant that the senate decreed that a number of yoiitti should be regularly instructed in it ; at a later 
period it fell into disrepute ; the emperor Claudius attem[»ted to revive it. Cf. Cicero, De Div. 
i. 41, 43. ii. 21, 29, .S5. Tacilus, Ann. xi. 15. — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with 
sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil (Georg. ill. 486). 

§*2Il. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts [epuisc) of 
the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla. the number 
was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epulimes, and by Caesar at last to ten. 
They had the care of what were called the Lecfisferma, when couches were 
spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and 
placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most 
important of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They 
were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. 
Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often taken for this office; 
yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed 
its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prsetexta. The viri epulnres 
must not be confounded with the epulones ; the former were not the priests, but 
the guests at the repasts spoken of. 

§ 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing long before the 
building of Rome, among the Rutuiians and other Italian states. The order 
was introduced at Rome by Numa. It continued to the beginning of the impe- 
rial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They 
may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties 
and agreements pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called 
F at ei- pair at us. It devolved iipon him, or the Feciales under him, to give the 
enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the 
declaration by uttering a solemn form {clarigafio), and hurling a spear (hasta 
sanguined), into the enemy's limits. These priests were also the customary 
agents in effecting an armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and 
aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices there- 
with connected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and 
the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security 
tf foreign ambassadors at Rome. 

§ 213. The Rex sacntrum, or Bex sacrificulus, held an office, which was insti- 
tuted first after the expulsion of the kings, and probably derived its name from 
the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings 
themselves or under their immediate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, 
the oiTice and name both arose from a desire that the royal dignity might not 
be wholly f )rgotlen. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts oc- 
i^upied the first place, although the duties were not nutnerous, and consisted 
ehiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was 
also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointly with the 
Pontifex iVlaximus, to corivoke the people (^popu/um calare), and make known 
the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing. 
At the Cornilia he offered the great public sacrifice, after which, however, he 
Wiusi withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Ih' 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. So^ 

gijia saomrum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His 
residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Rpgia. The office con- 
tinued until the time of Theodosius the Great. 

See ^nibrosch^ Studien und Andeulungen, p. 41.— Of. L. Schmitz, in Smith's Diet, of Aniiq. p. S23. 

§ 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such priests as 
were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them 
was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the 
order, there were but two besides this, viz.: the Flamen Mar/ialis and the Fla- 
men Quirinalis. Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They 
were divided into majores^ who must be Patricians, and minorea, who were 
taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a purple 
border {laena), and a cap of conical form {apex) adorned with a twig of olive. 
The Flamen Dialis had a lictor, and also a sel/a curulis and the toga prasfex/a; 
his wife was called Flaniinica^ and aided him in some parts of the worship on 
the festivals of Jupiter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and en- 
joyed several other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many 
duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen 
Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose ser- 
vice they were devoted, as Flamen Neplunalis^ Flora/is, Fumonalis ; so of those 
belongring to a deified Caesar, as Y\?iV(\en .lugnstalis^ Fiavialis, &c. 

§ 215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the commor 
opinion had their name from dancing (sa/zVe), because on certain festival days 
they passed about the city dancing, and singing songs in honor of Mars. They 
were first instituted by Numa. The immediate occasion of their institution, ac- 
cording to the tradition, was the famous shield, Jlncile^ said to have been sen* 
from heaven; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order tc 
hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were carried 
by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit around the city. 

1 u. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Frcesul, whose leaping was 
expressed by the verb nmtruare. and the leaping of the others atier him by redcnnt ruare. 
'J hey had their appropriate residence {curia Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides 
the music which accompanied their dancing, tliey struck their shields together, and 
in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated ihe praises ot the 
god of war (cf P. IV. "$> 114. 4.) and of Veturius JSIamaiius, the artist who made the 
eleven shields. 

2 u. '1 he order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the acces- 
sion of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the emperors, especially M. Au- 
relius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only for a ceriain period. 
— "1 he Salii Collini or Quirinales were distinct from this body, and established by 
TuUius Hostilius. 

See Liv. i. 2n.— Ou. Fast. iii. 259. On the .Salii, and other classes of priests, cf. Cottling, Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfass.— 

See also especinliy Harlung. Die Religion der Ronier. — T. Gvtlaiethi de Saliis Marlis saceidntibus apud Romanos liber singularia 
Franeqnerae, 1704. 8— Cf. Seidd, De fallal, sacr. vet. Rom. Berl. 1826.— .4. Opel's Mftrik, Th. 2 p. 647. 

§ 216. The Lvperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established 
by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designation, which Pan re- 
ceived from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Ltipercu.s {nb arcendu Ivpns). 
His temple was from the same circumstance called Lupercal, and his most cele- 
brated festival at Rome, Liipercalin. This festival began about the middle of 
P^'ebruary, and was regarded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The 
Luperci, on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle 
of goat's skin about the waist; they carried in their han<ls thongs of the same 
material, with which they struck those whom they met ; the word to express 
the action was catnmidiare. A peculiar efficacy was ascribed to these blows, 
paiticularly in rendering married women prolific. 

1 u. There were three distinct companies {sodalifates) of these priests ; the Fnf)iani, 
Quiniilianij and Julii. The last were of later origin and took their name froni Julius 
Caesar ; the others were named after individuals, who had been their chief or head 
priests. 

2 u. The Potifii and Pinarii were not companies or mortalities of Luperci, but priests 
of Hercules; they were not held in important estimation, although their pretended 
origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The tradition was, that Hercules. 



JinO ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

during his residence in Italy with Evander, instructed in the rites of his worship rhf 
tribes or t'amilies bearing this name, which was alterwards retained by the priests. 

§ 217. The Gain were priests of Cybele the great mother Oi me gous, so 
called from the river Gallus in Phrygia, whose water w»s regarded as possess- 
ing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who drank it. The circumstance 
of their being castrated is referred to the fable respecting Atys. At the festival 
of their goddess, celebrated in March, and called Hiluria fcf. P. II. § 21), these 
priests imitated the phrensy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and 
self-scourging and cutting. Their chief priest was termed Archigallus. The 
order was not highly respected. 

§ 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vestaks, were an order of Priestesses, of very 
early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The constant preservation of the 
holy fire and the guarding of the Palladium (P. II. § 43, § 67) were the princi- 
pal duties of the Vestals. They were first instituted by Numa, four in number* 
two were added by Tarquinius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever 
after remained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vestalis or Virgo 
Maxima. They were selected {capere) between the age of six and ten, particu- 
lar regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection. 
They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years unmarried. The first 
ten years were employed in learning the rites, the second ten in performing 
them, and the rest in instructing others. Negligence in any of their duties was 
severely punished. If any one violated her vow of chastity, she was buried 
alive in a place called Campus sceleraius, near the Porta Collina. Besides the 
two principal duties of these priestesses, they were accustomed to offer certain 
sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some 
preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great 
respect, and many privileges; e. g. entire freedom from parental control; au- 
thority to deliver from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them ; cer- 
tain revenues of lands devoted to them; the attendance of a lictor, whenever 
they went out; a public maintenance, and release from the obligation to take 
an oath. Their office was abolished under Theodosius, on account of its ex- 
pense. 

For representations of Vestals, see Plate XXVIII. and explanations given P. U. §'67. — Cf. Nadal, Dupiiy, &c. as there cited. 

§ 219 a. A few wards must be added respecting the other classes of priests 
before named (cf. § 207). The Qiiindecemviri sacrisfaciundis had the care of the 
Sibylline books (cf. § 226). The Fratres ./Irvales served especially at the festi- 
val called Amharvalia (cf. P. II. § 63), when the fields were dedicated and 
blessed, these priests passing over them in procession (cf. P. IV. § 114), with 
a crowd of attendants. The Sudales Titii or Tatii had their name from the 
Sabine king Titus Tatius: each tribe had seven of them. There were also 
Sodales Augustales, or priests in honor of Augustus. The Curiones were thirty 
priests, who performed the sacred rites common to the several Curiae. 

1. Each of the Curim had a president or priest called Curio; these thirty priests 
formed. a college under a chief president termed Curio maximus. Cf. § 251; also 

2 11. The priests of all the various classes had their assistants and servants (mitristri). 
Among ihese were the waiting boys and maids, camilli and camiUce ; the assistants of 
the priests who offered sacrifices, fiaminii and fiamiiKB ; the keepers of the temples, 
ceditui or csdif iin^ni ; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew them, jwpre, 
viclimarii, cultrfirii. The tihicines, tubicines, fdiciiies, &c., who accompanied tne 
sacrificial rites wiih music, formed hkewise another fraternity. 

3. The wystairnrri were ihose who initiated others into mysteries ; the nnme is also given to 

those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. By some late writers the priests 

were divided into three tlassesj anlistites, chief priests ; suce?v/oies, ordinary priests; and ?//!• 
nistri, meanest priests. 

^ 219 b. Respecting the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. When 
Romulus first divided the Roman territory, he set apart what was sufficient lor the 
performance of sacred rites,. and for the support of temples. Numa is said to have 
provided a fund for. defraying the expenses of religion, and to have appointed a stipend 
[sti-pendium) for the Vestals; the Augurs also and the Curiones are said to have re- 
reived an annual stipend ; but there is no evidence that the priests received any regu- 
■nr salary, except as it may seem probable from the instances specified. Yet there 



^mm 




'mMM.ML 



"'"^'iB.sr: 



19 



P III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS. SACRIFICES. 237 

can DC no doubt ihat, in some way or other, sufficient provision was n.ade for their 
support. — Two priests, the Pontifex Maximus and the Flatnen Diahs, were by virtue 
of their office members of the senate. All the priests held their offices without rospon- 
sibihty to the civil magistrate ; and with few exceptions were allowed to hold othei 
offices both civil and military. 

Cf. Cic De Leg. ii. 9.— Z,!U xxxviii. 47; xxxix. Ab.—Dionys. Hal. iv. 8.— Also, Liv. i. 2Q.—Diony!t. ii. 6, l.—Tac Ann. iv. 16 
—See H. Bebtlius, De Sacerdotiis Rom. in Salleiip-e, vol. iii. — Swigny, Les honneurs accordes aus pretres, &c. in the Mtm. Acad, 
hncr. xxxi. 108. 

Representations of priests, from ancient monuments, may be seen in Plates XIX., XX., 
XXVII , XXVIII., XXIX., XLV., XLVI.; also it. tiie J«np. Plates 28, 29, 32.— In Plate XXVIII., 
the two figures inarki-d Priests are taken from a bas-relief found at Aiituii (jiuirustoduvum, cf. 
P. I. $ IT) ; they represent two Druidcr, or priests of the religion of the ancient GmuIs and Bri- 
tons ; both have ample robes, and long beards; one, who is perhaps the .^rch-Druid, wears a 
crown of oak leaves and holds a scepter, the other holds a crescent or half-moon. 

Respecting the Druids, see Fosiroke, Encyclop. of Antiq p. 768.— G. Hi^^his, The Celtic Druids. Lond. S27. 4. — The work 
entitled '•fdentity of the Religions called Dniidical a7id Hthrew." — Moiilfaucon, vol. ii. p. 434. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. p. 209. 
—Edinb Encyclop. 

§ 220. Of the vast multitude cf religious customs among the Romans, we 
will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers to the gods. They 
prayed with the head covered or vailed {capitevelatu). They howed themselves 
down to the ground, in this posture moved around completely from right to left, 
placed their right hand on the mouth {adi)ratio), and directed their face towards 
the east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a higher 
degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or prostrated the 
whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold of the altar 
and to make offerings of meal and wine with their prayers. The prayer was 
not always offered with an audible voice. Public prayers {precaiionts) were 
made by a priest or a magistrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was 
that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings [supplicaiiones) 
were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and 
praising the gods; in which view the people made a solemn procession to the 
temples. Public occasions of this sort were called supplicafiones ad pxdvinaria 
dcorxim ; these pulvinaria were a sort of couches or stools with cushions or 
pillows {pulviiii)^ on which were placed the statues of the gods. They were 
also termed siippHa'a, and were appointed in honor of particular deities, or of 
all the gods united. The prayers offered on these occasions were called obse- 
crafiunes, which term usually has reference to the averting of danger. 

Eurigny, Les prieres des Paiennes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p 27. — Morin, Baijemains, &c. {adoratio), in the same 
Mem. vol. iii. p. £9. 

There is no evidence that public religious instruction formed any part of the duty of pri'sts, or was ever connected with public 
worship, which consisted wholly in performing such rites as are above specified, and in ofTsriiigs andsicrifices. Nothing like preach- 
ing or sacred oratt-ry was known. 

§ 221. The sacrifices of the Romans {sacrificia') were very various. They 
were offered either at stated times (slata, solennio), or on particular occasions 
{exoc.idenis nain). Animal sacrifices were termed hosfix orvictiwas; the original 
difference betvveen tnese words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered 
on going out againsi a roe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as 
little regard,"!d by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the former 
a smaller and the ialtei a greater sacrifice. 

1 u. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously selected. 
They were broll^hr to the altar, ornamented, like the person ofiering them, with gar- 
'ands of flowers; the horns of bullocks arid rams were decked vviTh gilt, audvvhite 

iliets were hung ov<;r their necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered 
•,s a favorable omen ; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as unfavorable ; the 
let of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. 1 he .priests then commanded 
all the profane to depart, and another priest ordered silence [liv^uis favetc). '1 hen 
followed the prayer to the gods, and after it the offering of the victim, 'i he knife and 
the altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a mixture of salt 
and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted {mola salsa). 'I he head of the victim was 
sprinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolare, 
although it is often synonymous with maclare. 

2 u. The ciiUrarius, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked. Agonef 
and the consul, praetor or priest having answered, Hocage, then struck the anitiial in 
the forehead with his ax or mallet; another, next cut or stabbed him in the throat; 
and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined 
hv the haruspe,r, and if they were found favorable, were, after being cleansed, laid op 



238 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was burned (liolocauslum) ; bu'. 
usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacriHcial feast, or to the priests. 
Upon the burning flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out; the lattei 
constituted the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, 
accipe lihens. In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After all 
came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice partook in 
common, and which was usually accompanied with music and dancing, and often fol- 
lowed with games. 

3. Music also usually accompanied the offering of the sacrifice, as is shown by the monuments 
represented in onr Plates. Compare Plate XXVll. fiof. B, where are seen two long straight 
trumpets; Plate XXIX. where, besides the trumpets, the double flute is played by a buy, who is 
adorned with a wreath on his head, as are also most of the officiating priests; Plate XLV., 
where the flute and the tympanum are introduced (cf. P. II. $ 91. 2). 

4. There were sacrifices without blood; made by lihatio7is usually of wine, but also 
of other fluids; by burning incense or Iragrant wood, such as cedar, fig, and myrtle; 
and by offering //-z*/' as a tribute or tithe from the harvest (T^rmiiicg) and also sometimes 
cakes {Uha) made of flour and honey or of wax. 

5. Illustrations of the pouring out of libations are given in Plate XXVII. fig. C, and in Platn 
XX.; in the latter is ;ilso seen the offering of fruit or cakes, together with a libation; it is from 
a sculpture in ivory, representins a sucrifice without blood to Mercury ; a female is taking some- 
thing from a cylindricnl vase, wliile a servjinl (cawilla) holds a discus of fruit or cakes and a 
vessel containing the libation. — In the same plate is the representation of a bloodless sacrifice 
to Diana, from a bas-relief on the Arch of Constantine (cf. P. IV. J 188. 2). The image of the 
goddess, with a crescent on her he;id ami a spear in her right hand, standing on a pedestal, is 
seen between two trees; on om^ of which is fixed the head of a wild boar (api-r) i the altar is in 
front of the image ; three milites hagtati are in attendance, while the emperor Trajan, holding in 

one hand a volume, with the other hand empties a patera u|)on the flame. In Plate XLVI. is 

a representation of the sacrifice of a bull to Ju|»iter Capitolirius by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
drawn from a remarkable anaglyph at Rome. Cf. P. IV. $ 188. .S. — In the Sup. Plate 32 is a 
beautiful representation nf the animal sacrifice performed by priests, and of the sacrifice with 
out blood conducted by priestesses, one of whom is pouring a libation from a vessel which is 
perhaps the capedo (cf. $ 206). 

§ 233. It was very common amono- the Romans to make vows {vota), which 

generally consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgments or 

returns, provided the gods should grant the requests of those making the vows. 

A person doing this was said vuta facere, concipere, suscipere, nuncupare, and 

was called voti reus,- to fulfil the promise was vota solvere, redd ere ^ he who 

gained his wish was said to be voti damnalus, voti compos. Sometimes the 

thing desired was itself termed volum. Often public vows were made for the 

benefit of the whole people; these were considered as the most binding. The 

vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which was preserved in the temple 

of the god to whom it was made. 

1 u. I'hose who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to hang up in 
the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures representing the circumstances of theii 
danger and deliverance (/(??)«/(? voIvccb). )Similar pictures were sometimes carried about 
by them in order to obtain charitable relief. 

2u. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made to Juno 
Ijuciiia or Genius, on a birth-day (t)o/a natalitiu); those made when boys, on passing 
from childhood, cut offtheir hair and dedicated it to Apollo {vota capiUilia); the vows 
of the sick in case of recovery; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape ; of those 
on journeys by land. It also became a custom for subjects lo make vows for the wel 
fare of their emperors, which were renewed after the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of 
their reign, and therefore called qtiinqumiila, decenn.uUa or vicennidia. 

H Dnrlwdl, de diebus veterurn nalalitiis. in his PrxUcl. Jlrnd. Ox. I€92 8. p. 153. 

§ 323. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (dicatio), was 
one of the religious soleinnities of the Romans. This was originally performed 
by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and often also by two magistrates ap- 
pointed for the purpose and called duumviri dedicandis templis. I'he senate 
must first decree the service; the Pontifex Maximus must be present at the so- 
lemnity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompanied with 
acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then followed. 

On the ceremonies at the dedication of a temple, see Tacitut, Hist. iv. 53. — Cf. Huoht's Rom. Hist. vol. x. p. 282, as citei P. V 
5299 7 

X u. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration {consecralio) ; only, the laftei 
expression was applied to a. gi'cat varieiy of particular objects, e g. statues, sacred 
utensils, fields, animals, &.C.. Besecraticri, on the other hand, was a private trans- 
action, in which the people or individuals were freed from their vows; this was also 
'Med religione solvere- 

2. The term inaugiuatio was someumes used as synonymous with dediratio and 



p. Ill RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. '2^VJ 

cansec ratio; but it was in general the ceremony by which the Augurs sought the plea- 
sure or sanction of the gods in respect to any thing decreed or contemplated by men; 
it was a ceremony therefore used not only in dedication, but in introducing a priest or a 
magistrate into office, and in entering upon any important engagement. Cf. ^ 209. 

3 zt. Execration was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods' was a 
solemn rite by which (certo carmiae) they called upon the gods of a besieged city {evocare) 
to take the side of the Romans. It was attended with sacrifices and consultaiion of the 
entrails. 

§ 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended gods, and 
the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piaculum. Much more frequent 
and various were the lustrations or purijicatiuns [lustraliones), both public and 
private. 

1 u. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals; the private 
were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was customary before the march 
of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lustration, not for reviewing the forces, 
but to purify them by sacrifices. 

2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five years, a 
purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were 
carried round the whole assembly and then slain, 'i'he sacrifice was called suovetaurilia, 
and he who performed it was said condere lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have 
been applied to it, because at that time all the taxes were paid by the farmers-general 
to tjje censors (from luere to pay) ; the term is also used to signify a space of five years, 
because the ceremony was performed always at. the end of that period. The verb 
lustrare expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the viciims v/ere carried 
round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to survey. The 
lustrum was always made in the Campus Martius. 

■ In Plate XXIX. is a fine representation of ttie Suovetaurilia, or sacrifice to Mars, drawn from 
ancient marbles sculptured in bas-relief: the priest, probably Trajan the ein|)eror, with a veil 
upon his head, approaches a double altar crowned with laurel; a servant (camillus) stands by, 
holding theacerra; another plays upon the dnuMe tibia ; two soldiers blow the tuba; behind 
the emperor is a priest or servant bearing the ve>;sel considered by Montfaucori as the prmferi- 
culum ; others are leading forward the three victims ; in attendance are several soldiers and 
standard-bearers ; a rTch fillet lies upon the back of the bull ; all the priests are crowned with 
laurel. Cf. Monffaucun, ii. 189, and Sup. ii. 73. 

3. The expiation made on the appearance of some prodigy, was ofien very solemn and inipos- 
inji. "The senat'=', after having ordered the Sit)ylline b'>(.ks to be consulted by ihose who had 
the keeping of them, to see what was lo be done on those occasions, ordinarily appointed days 
of fastinff ; as al-io festivals, especially the Lectisternia ; public prayers; and sacrijices. Then 
you might have s-en th^ whole city of Rome, and in imitation of her the other cities of the em- 
pire, in mourning and consternation; the temples adorned; the Lectisternia prepared in the 
public places; expi^ttorv sacrifices repeated over and over again. The senators and patricians, 
their wives and ttieir children, with garlands on their heads, every tribe, every order, preceded 
by the / igli Priest ami the Duumviri, marched gravely through the sireels; and this procession 
vvas accompanied by ihe youth singing hynuis, or repealins; prayers, while the Priests were 
offering sacrifices in the temples and invoking the gods to avert the calamities with which they 
imagined themselves lo be threatened." 

§ 2'35. The oaths (^jusjurandum, jnramentuni) of the Romans, which wete 

regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into public and private. The 

first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (cf. § 243. I) often also 

by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census, 

and every single soldier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such 

as pertained to marriage. 'I'hey were usually taken before the altars of the 

gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses; not urifrequently sacrifices were at 

the same time offered. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said 

concepfis verbis jiir are. 

\. Witnesses in civil proceedings sometimes confirmed their testimony by an oath ; and in all 
public trials (cf. J 2bl) were required to do it. Perjury was punished, yet, so far as appears, not 
more severely than false testimony (/aVsMw) withoiu oath. — Swearing seems to have been in- 
dulged freelv in common life and ordinary conversation; such ex.|)ressions as' the following 
v^'ere frequent; Herrle, or Mehercle; Pol, .Mdepol, Perpol; per Jovem ; per superos ; medius 
fidivs ; da me jierdant, or interjiceant. Sec. 

BrUsonUcs, De Formul. &c —L. C. (^alckenaet; De Rilibus in Jur.indo a veteribus, in /. OdricWs Collect. 0|iusculorum. Brem. 
1768. 4. 

2 m. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's se]f (devovere) to 
capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his country or the life of a person particu- 
larly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured 
city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished. 

§ 226. The>Romans had no oracles themselves; but in cases of importance, 
they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman supersti- 
tion, however, found nearer sources of information respecting the will and decla 



240 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

rations of the gods. Besides the use of their augurhim and bxtupisciuin, they 
had recourse to the Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of 
Curnae. 

1 u. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus (see P. V. 
§ 16;. They were kept with great care in a stone vault under ground in the Capitol, 
in the custody of the Qabidtcemv'iri sacrisfaciundis (cf. '5i 219). In important emergencies, 
m general disasters, when omens were inauspicious, or circumstances were perplex ng, 
they consuhed the Sibylline predictions, and endeavored thence to ascertain how ihb 
oiTended deities could be appeased. 

2 u. The burning ot'the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books; 
there were attempts to restore some parts ol -them from fragments and quotations. 1 he 
pieces now extant under i:his name, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of 
later origin, 

§ 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or 
iindertakin^, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or 
blocks {tali) of w^ood or metal, on which certain words or marks were inscribed, 
which were kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous 
were those in the temple of this goddess at Praeneste, which in early times were 
very frequently employed. 

1 u. I'hose at Antium were also renowned ; those at Csere and Falerium disappeared,, 
as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of tbis sort were provided and kept 
for domestic use. Those who foretoW the fuiure by means oi lo;s were called Sortiiegi. 

Cf. Cic. de Divinat. ii. 41. — Liv. xxi ^^2. xxii. I. — Du Resnel, Rechercties Histor. sur les Sorts appelees par .les Payens, Sortes 
Virgilianae, &c. iu Mern. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 

2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (cf § 209), other artifices were 
employed among the Romans by those who pretended to foretell the future. Some 
professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Asfrologi^^Iathematici, or 
Geneihliaci, and sometimes Cliald(Ei or Bahylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chai- 
daea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectores; o'.hers to have an internal 
afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaficmatores. Insane persons were supposed to fore- 
know the future; in which class were ihe Cerlti, ihose rendered insane by Ceres; the 
Lymphati, rendered so by the water-nymphs; L^matici, by the moon; Fanadci, by 
the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane {fanum). In short many 
of the Grecian arts of divination (cf ^ 75) were practiced among the Romans. 

3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Ro- 
mans; perhaps, however, -chiefly by Greeks and oiher foreigners. Some passages in 
Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were openly avowed at Rome. Pliny 
speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world.-— '1 he 
Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinating 
others (/r/scma^/o), by darting an evil look upon them; which the Greeks lermed 
Bao-K-ayta (cf. ^ 75 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was 
sometimes worn on the neck, caWed fnschtum (cf. P. II ^ 91. 2). 

See ArchsEoloi^ia (as lited P IV. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Pas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by the evil 
fcve — y. Alsarius, De Invidia et Faspino Veterum, in Gncvius, vol. xii.— C/aJS. Journ. vol. xxxvi. p 185, on tlie niae;ic of tlie 
Greeks and Romans. — Le Blond, sur Magie, in Ihe Mtm. dt Vlnstitul, C 1 a ss e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, i. 81 — Bunaniy and Blan- 
chard, La Magie, &c in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 23. xii. 49. Cf Hor. Epod 5. and 17. — Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. \.— SuUerle, Des 
Sciences Occultcs, ou Essaie sur la Magie. Par. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and 
therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. Without noticing the various 
changes in this, we may remark that Romulus, Nnma, and Julius Caesar were 
the authors of the principal methods of dividing and computing the year. The 
month was divided into three parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides, and in 
computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these 
three fixed points. 

1 ti. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into 
twelve hours Qiorce) which of course were of different length at the different seasons of 
the year ; hence the phrase liora hiber7im, equivalent to hora brevisshna. The night 
was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. I. ^ 187), and also into four watches (vigiUcB). 
The use of sun-dials {soluria), and of water-glasses (clepsydra;), seems to have been in- 
troduced at a comparatively late period. 

2. The dial is said to have been iqventfd at Lacedsenrion in the time of Cynis the G'reai. The 
first one at Rome was set up B..C. about 260. — The clepsydra (K^expvSpa) was itiveiited at Alex- 
attdria, and carried thence to Athens and afierwaids, B. C. abnut 160, introduced at Rome. " It 
was formed t)y a vessel of water, havine a minute perforation in the bottom, rhroueh which the 
wntST issued (stealing out, kXIiLis wwp) drop by drop, and fell into another ves.sel, in whicii a 

?h\ budy floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water increased 



^imt^ 




^ 



p. in. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 



241 



In the receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly increasing he ght fiirnishca 
an approxitiiation to a correct indicHtion of time." (Bi^eluw's Technology, p. 365.)— It was sc 
constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accotninudated to the varying 
length of the Roman hours. A servant was employe*), whose business it was from time to lime 
to examine the water-chick, and report the hour to his master. 

See the account of the divisions of time amnua; the Romans, the day, monlh, aud yt-ar, given under Chronology ; rf. P. I. §§ 187, 
188, 191-193. — To the references there given we add Dissert, Ue Fartibus Noctis et Diei, &c. in his Kleiiie Schrijien. 

§ 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for the service 
of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, 4)anquets, and games; these were 
called (lies f est i. The days called dies fasli were those on which no assembly 
of the people or senate was held, but the prsetor administered justice; days, on 
which he could not do this, were termed nefasli. Days, of which only a part 
of each could be appropriated to business, were called inter ci si ; those wholly 
resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered inauspicious were 
called dies religiosi ,- among these they reckoned especially the first days after 
the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which they named />os/r?W^o7)^. The festival 
days were termed also ferias, dies feriati, from tlie cessation of common 
business. 

1. The Roman festivals were either public, observed by the whole nation (/frj<E public(B),ot 
private, observed by families and individuals (feiicB private). Private festivals weie held or. 
days determined by the parties interested; being desi<;iied to commemorate births, marriages, 
deaths, or other important events in domestic history. The public included the fericB siaiiv.n, 
those of regular occurrence on certain fixed days; Ihe ferite covcepiii-'te, lh(tse held on days annu- 
ally appointed by civil magistrates or by the priesthood (jus pimtijichun); Hiid the feria; impera- 
'iv(P, those held on special emergencies by command of the c<msul, l e prwiors, or a dictator. 
As above mentioned all common business was sus|)ended on the public ferim, the sancity of 
which was violated if the rex sacrorum, or any of the flamines, saw any person at work. The 
great number of the ferire and the length of their continuance sometimes interfered with the 
proper discharge of the public affairs of the state. Marcus Aiirelius iriiaitied that two hundred 
and thirty days of the year should be open for business, and the remaining days might be ferim. 
The festivals commonly had particular names, but some were designated hy a disiinclive epi- 
thet applied to the common name; as, e. g. Ferm Laiina, cominemoialin<; the alliance between 
the Romans and Latins; Ferim Senientivm, in seed-time, to pray for a good crop— The J^hiuIUkb 
were sometimes reckoned amonir the Feria;; they were regular days on whicli the people from 
the country assembled to expose their various commodities fur sale, nuflietdaiis; calletl MunfiiiKt, 
because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). — Ii was the business <if the Pontifices 
to prepare annually a register called Kalevilarium. or Fasti Knlert'hires, or i^«.v/? isncri, in which 
the days were marjced in each month and distinguished according as they belonged to the differ- 
ent classes above named ; and the various festivals were mentiimed as they were to take jilace 
through the year The Fasti Kalcndnres are to be distinguished from the Fasti ^imialfs: the latter 
were registers of the magistrates; of which the mo>t important were '.hose termed FustiCcvsitlares. 
Hartung, Die Religion der Rnnier. — R Huspininii, De Festis Diebus Judaeoruni, Grajcoruni, Rouianorum, et Turcaruiii. Tigur. 
1593 fol. — Couture^ Les Fas es. in the Aftni. .icad hiscr. i. 60 — De la Nauze, Calendrier Romain. in the same Mem &c. vol. xxvi. 
p. 219. — Of. Port Royal Lai. Grammar. — Several Fragments of Calendars are given in Grxuius, vol. viii. — A Calend 4r fr(fln Pauly"? 
Real-Encyclopadie is iiveii in Smith's Diet, of Antiq — Respecting the Calendarium Prxnestiiiuni, see P. iV. § 133. 6.— Respect- 
ing the Fasti Annalts or Histonci, see P. V. § 508. 

§ 230 if. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some ^f the 
principal, in order of the months. 



January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on 
the first day of the year, on which, iti later 
times, the Consuls entered upon their office. 
The presents customary on this day were called 
strevte ; they were sent from clients to their 
patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and 

from friends to one aimther. 9th. The ^«ro- 

nalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and l.'itli. 

The Carmentalia, to the goddess Carmenta, 
an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. 
— ^— 25lh. The SementincB, or festival o'' seed, 
accompanied with the Jimbarvalia, which dif- 
fered from the festival of the same name in 
May ; on which they passed over the fields with 

the animals to he slain in sacrifice. .SOth. 

The festival of Peace (Pax), first established by 

Augustus. 31st. The festival in honor of the 

Penates, or household gods. 

February. 1st. The l.ucaria, in memory of 
the asylum formed by Roniultis, or f>f the re- 
fuge ilucus) of the Romans after the sack of 
their city by Brennus. — This day was also dedi- 
cated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia. in 

honor of Faunus and the Sylvan gods, i epeated 

5th December. 15th. Liipercnlin, to Lvirean 

Pan (cf. $216). 17th. Qairinnlia, to Romu- 
lus, deified by the name Uuirinus I8th Fe- 



ralia, to the Manes, accompanied witn a solemn 
expiation or purification of the city, called fe- 
brnatin, whence the name c>f the month itself. 
It continued from the 18th to the end of the 
month, during which time present? were car- 
ried to the graves of deceased friends and rnla- 
lives, and the living held feasts of love and re 

conciliation. 21st. Tenninulia, to Terminus, 

the god of boundaries. 

March. On the first day, with which in 
early times the year began, a fe.<tiral to Mars, 
on which the procession or war-dance of the 
Salii was made (cf. $215); called ;ilso the fes- 

tivjil of the shields; it lasted three da\s. 

6\\u f^estalin, ditferenl from that held in June. 

ITih. Liberolia. to Bacchus, but ditferent 

from the Baccharotlia. U)th. Quinquatna, to 

Minerva, named from its duration of five days; 
the last day called Tiihilnstriiiin, because 'he 
truirpets used in sacnd rites were then purr 

fied. 2.'?d. Hilarin, to (^ybele. whose sairei' 

i'tiage was during it sprinkled and [)urified 
called also l,iir'itin Alntri.' f)eum. 

April. On the 1st day, l^everalia,l\'p. fesiivat 
of Venus, to whom ihe whole month was dedi 
cated. (Cr Srholl. Hist. I, ill IJom. vol. iii 
p. 24). 5th. JMegalesia, to Cyboio, who3' 



5>42 



ROMAN ANTIUUITIES. 



priests, the Galli (cf. $ 217), on this made llieir fjanjes in lionur oi" Mars. 13th. To iJtana. 

procession. 12th. CerfaZi*/, to (Jeres, altnnded ITlh. Portnvivalia, to Portuninus, the go«i 

with games. 1.5. Fordicidia, to th« g.-ddess ' of h;ul»i>rs. 18ih (J mis n alia., to Consiis, liio 

Tollns, for the purpose of averting a dearlli or god nf counsel or rather lo Equr-slriaii Nepiune. 
scarcity, on occasion of which I\uma instiliUed The seizure of the iSabiiie women was com- 

tlie festival ; each Curia furnished a pregnant niemoraied llie same day. 21st. Nivalin {\\\e 

tow (fordn) to he sacrificed to Tellus. 2ist. second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter 

P«/j/2«, a rural, country festival to Pales, god- ; fud Venus. 2.3d. Vulcanaha, to Vukau as 

dess of cattle. 22d. Finalia, repeated in Au- , the god of fire, for securiiy against conflagra- 

gust, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the tioi s. 25th. Opecavsiua, to Rhea, or Ops, or 

vine in Italy. 23. Robigalia,Xn the god Ro- i fruit-lieariny Earth. 

biciis, thai he might protect the grain from Septembkr. Ou the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- 

l)lighting (0 rj^ftjo-i/ic) 28lh. Fh.ralia^in T\c<-\ni<ictes. 4ih. Ludi Mugvi. or fiiviani, in tlie 

ra or </hloris, attended with games (cf. $ 2;^6). ; Circus, to Jupiter. Juno, and Winer\a ; they 

3()th. The festival of the Falutine Vcsia, in- lasted from the 4th day lotlie 12ih.— — I3lli. The 

stitnted hy Augustus. [ceremony of fi.xing a nail {rluvvs fgevdns) in 
May. On the first day, the Festival to ^//e j the temple of Jupiier, hy a diciaior appointed for 
Lares Prcestitesy and the ceremonies hy night to jthe purpose, to averi contagious pestilence. 



Bona Dea, performed by the vestals and wo- 
men alone. 2d. Compitaliu, to the Lares in 

the public ways. 9th. /.e?HMri(/, to the Lemu- 

res, or wamleriug spirits of deceased ancestors 



25th. To Venus Genetrix. — -30lh. Mediirinalia, 
for tasting new wine before the vintage; mat 
this festival was sacred to a goddess of health, 
named Mediiriiia, is as doubiful as the existence 



and relatives t)n ihe father's side (cf. I'. II. $$: of the goddess herself. 

110,111). 15th. Festum Mercatiirium^VoM^^r-l OcTonvv.. 12ih. jivirusUilia, profierly games 

:ury. for merchants (cf. V. 11. $ 5f3). 23d. in honor of Augustus, msiiiuied after the close 

f^alcavalia, to Vulcan, called also Tahilnstria of bij! campaigns, particuhirly tie Armenian. 

Vom the purifying of the sacred lrum[)ets. B. (1 19 or 20. 13ih. Foviivulia, in which the 

June. Ofi the first day were several f sti- \ public fountains were crowned with garlands. 

vals, to Dea Carna, Juno Muveta, Mars Extra- I5lh. To Mars, chiefly a horserace on the 

nniraveiis, and Tempesias. 3d. 'ihe festival Campus Marlins, at the end of which a horse 

to Bellona 4th. To Hercules. '."ih. Vesta- was offered in sacrifice. — — 19rh. The. Jirinilus- 

lia, to Vesta, in memory of ihe gifi of bread lo trimu, or review-muster, celebrated only hy 

men Food was sent to the Vestals to be of- [soldiers, ami in full armor. 

fered tr, the gods; and the asses, which turned I Nove.mber. 13lh. A feast dedicated to Jupi- 

the mills, were decked with garlands and led ter, Epultnii ./oris. 15th. /,iidi Plebeii, itt ihe 

in procession.— 10th. Mntralia, to Matuta, theatre, or the circus ; ihey were also frequent- 
celebrated by Roman matrons ; also a festival, ly held at other times not defined, 
on the same day, to Fo/-?«7ia F2?-2Z?s, by women ; Dkcemdkr. 5lh. Favitalia. ki'.\)l by tho peo- 

nnd lo Covcordia. 13th Qiiijiqnarria (.parva),' f)\ti of ihe country, as the same in February 

designed for the inifirovement and pleasure of was by the inhabilanis of the city 17th. 

those, who had the care of the inusic in the So/!//rw(i/j(/, one of the most fanions festivals of 

worshi() of the gods. 16ih. I'lirifying of the Rome, orieinally limited to a single day, atter- 

teniple of Vesta. 19th To f^urnmanus, i e. 

probably to Pluto. 24th. Fort una Fortis, for 



l)eopleof the lower classes. 30th. To Her 

c'lles and the Muses. 
JiLY. On the first day the occupants of 

hired houses changed their residence. ^ 5ih. 

Ludi ^poUiiiares, with sacrifices. 6th. To 



wards e>iended over three, four, and more. It 
was a festival of leisure and general joy, in 
memory of the golden period in Italy under the 
government of Saturn. During it slaves were 
placed on a footing of equality with ti.eir mas- 
ters. Many of the peculiar customs and sports 
were similar to those of the Carnival, or (Christ- 



Female Foriune in memory of Coriolaniis with- mas Festival, of modern Home fii e Cvleimin's 

drawing his army from the city (J.iv. ii. 40). Chr. Autiq p. 435. — The work entitled Home in 

7th. To Juno Caprotina, for young women, the Mineteenflt Centnnj, v«d iii. p. 240 19th. 

15. To (Jaslor and Pollux.. 23d JVepfu- <ip,ilia,U> the goddess of Ops 'Ihe Compi- 

valia. 25ih F/(riH(/7ia, to the goddess Furina. tatia, to ihe Lares of the crossways, were often 

August On the Jst day a festival to the held shortly after the Saturnalia, as well as in 

goddess of Hope ; and aladiatorial sports and other months. 

§ 231. The public shames {ludi) airtono the Romans, as well as among- the 
Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival 
occasions in honor of the gfods. These crames were usually at the expense of 
the state, sometiines at the expense of individuals, particularly the emperors. 
They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their 
celebration. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a 
time fixed or variable; many also arose from particular occasions; hence the 
variety in distinctive a}>pellations; e. g., ludi stali., imperafivi, insiauralivi. 
vofivi, ijuinquennales, deceimales, .secularcs, lusfraks, &c. Names were given 
also in reference to their character, and the place where they were celebrated; 
e.g., ludi circenses, capil(/iim\ sceiiici, piscalorii, triunipjiales, funebres. Only 
the most famous of these games can here be noticed. 

§ 232. The first to [)e mentioned are the Ludi Circcnsp.s, or by way of emi- 
nence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus Muximus, 'which 
was not merely a laige free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edi- 
hce ; it was a kind of theatre, commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged 
and adorned by .lulius C^sar as dictator. 

1 71. Its breadth was more than a stadium, and its length was three and a half stadia 
('MS'' fpei). A I' around it were seats {fori) lor spectators., so as to accommodate at 
'••asr lfO:'^^'J v>'Tsons. In the middle, exieiidiui^ lengthwise, was a wall, celled spina 



p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 240 

circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in length. At each end of the wiill were 
three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals {me'cp), around which the horses 
and chariots turned. The wall had many other ornaments. The whole edidec also 
was highly ornamented; it was altogether the largest of ihe kind, although ihere wore 
in Rome eight other places for races and games, called Circi. At one end w6re 1:2 
openings or parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and chariots 
stood waiting ior the signal to start. [Not lar Irom the carceres, a whitened rope (ulla 
linea) was drawn across the circus; one hall ot it marking the commencement. a)i(' 
the other half the end. of the race.] Those wlro governed the chariots, were divided 
into certain classes {facfioiies or greges), distinguished by dresses of different colors. 
The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun. 

2. Pliny (Elist. N. x.xxvi. 24) slates the niiniher of persons which the Circus Maxiiims whs 
capable of contaiiiiii? as 200,000 ; and the atithoriiy of Aiireiius Victor li.is lieen citi'd fir the 
nnnibei of 385.00'). — Of the other strucliires of this class ilie foliowiiii,' w.re the i)riiic!|)al : the 
Cirr.iis Flnuiiniiis ; tlie Ci-cusJUexandriiiiis; the Circus Sail iisticus ; the Ctrc.is Flin-iahs, nr \:i- 
ticaniis, finisiied by Nero in a sphMidid style, and si;^ aiized as tiie sceiii; where iiniiiliers of ilie 
early Christians snfFered tnartyrdoni undi-r that einpemr ; the ol)elisk in the centre of the peris- 
tyle of St. Peter was taken from the spiivi of this circns ; the Circus Cnmcallcs ; the Circus Do- 
miticB. — On the Via Appia there still remains the around plan, with p;irt of the superstructure, 
of a small circus, commonly called the Circus of Caruculla. 

Grxoius, as cited § 197 1. vol. ix. ; and Poleiitis, as there ciled, vol. v.— 6". L. Biaicu^ii, Discriziont, dei Circiii particolarniente 
di qiiello di Caracalla, &c. Con note C. Fea. Rora. l"'^0. fol. — Burgess, The Circus on the Appiaii Way. — Smil/i, Diet, of Anli- 
quities. 

3 u. The Ludi Circenses were commonly held but once a year; sometimes they 
were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained at public 
cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, fiompa circeymis, moved from the 
Capilol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid carriages or frames {in Iheiisis 
et ferculis), or on men's shoulders {in huineris). followed by a great train, on horseback 
or- on foot, with the combatants, musicians, &-c. Sacred rites were then perlormed, 
and the games opened. 

§ 233 u. The games or s,\\o\\'s {spectacuhi) in the Circus were of four kinds; chariot- 
races, vArh two or four horses ; contests of agility and strength, such as wrestling (lucla), 
boxing [pugiJatus). throwing the discus {disci jacius), leaping {salias). and running 
{cursiis); representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including 
the Ludiis TrojcB {Virg. Mn. v. 545); fighting of wild beasts {venal io). — To describe 
these partictdarly would exceed our limits .Many of the exercfses, however, cor- 
responded to those of the Greeks (cf ^'$> 78 — S3). The victors were rew^arded with crowns 
and sometimes with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a 
palm-hranch, which he bore in his hand. 

1. We tiave in fig. B. of Plate XVI. a victorious Roman charioteer, with the palm in his right hand, and the reins in his left ; he 
19 clo?ely ?irdel about the.chest and bmiy. 

See Brottier, Le jeux du Cirque, in the Mem. de VAcad des Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 487. — Mongez. Sur les animaux promenes ou tuea 
ians les Cirques, in. the Mem. de Plnftitiit, C 1 a s s e d''Hist. et Lit. Aitc. vol. x. p. 360. 

2 u. At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibi*ed, not in the 
Circus; particularly the Naumachi.7', or represeiuafions of naval battles. These ori- 
ginally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or excavations made lot 
the purpose and filled with water, whitth were also called NaumnchicB. The vessels 
were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes, and triany 
lost their lives or were severely wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in 
the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose. 

3. Claudius is said 'Tac. Ann xx. 56.— .Site*. Cbud. 21) to have exhibited a inn^nificent sea-fight on lake Fucinus, in ivhich there 
were fiftv shirs on each side, with 19,000 cnmbatanls (7ianmnc/iiani).— tiepresen'alinns of naval battles were coriinion under tht 
emperors, and are coinmemonled on some of the imperial coins — See SclteJJ'er, De Militia Navali. 

§ •234. The Ludi Saectilares, or centurial o-arnes, were solemnized with nrinch 
ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the lapse of a centnrv, but 
sometimes a little earlier or a little later; usually in the month of .April. For this 
occasion longr preparations were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted., 
and a sort of g-pneral purification or expiation of the whole city was previously 
made. Sacrifices were oifered to all the ffods, those of the infernal world as well 
as those of Olympus, and while the men attended banquets of the o-ods in theiT 
temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of .Tuno. Thank-offer- 
ings were also presented to the Genii. 

1 u. After the sai.rifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a larire theatre on 
the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of .Apollo and 
Diana. On the seconH dav the Roman m.itrons were collected to offer sacrifit-e in the 
Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Pian;> 
was sung in the temple of Palatine Apollo, by a select band of young men and virgins- 



244 ROMAN ANTICIUITIES. 

of Patrician rank. Tiie carmen scBCulare of Horace was prepared to be thus Bung, al 
the connnand of Augustus, in v.'hose reign the games were celebrated. 

llie firiit celeliratioii look place in the reign (if Augusli.s, B. C. 17 (Tac. Ami. xi. II) ; the second in the reign of Claudius, A. D. 11 
(.Suet. Claud 21) ; the third in the reign of Doniilian, A. I). 8S ; and the last in the reign of Fhilippus, A. D. 248, just one thousand 
••ezrf after the building of Rome. — Cf. Hariiing, Die Relig. d. Rom.— On the chronology of these games, Class. Journal, xvii. 351. 

2 ?«. To the rehgious solemnities, which were iield for the purpose of securing the 
safety ;)f the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered 
this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic 
plays, and ihe feats oi' jugglers (prcpsligiatoreii), persons who seemed to fly in the air 
Ipetauristcp), rope-dancers {funamhuU), and the liiie. 

The rope-dam er (KaXo/3arijs. a-xoivo/Sdrris) seems usually to have been a Greek (Jiiv iii. 80). Some of Ihe paintings found al 
Herculaneum exhibit funamlvli placing themselves in a great variely of altitudes, in the character of bacchanals, satj rs, and ihe 
like.— See Ihe uork styled Jintichi d'Eicotano (cited T. IV. ^ 2-13. 2), vol. iii.— A few of the figures are given in Sniitn, Diet, of 
Autiq. p. 434. 

§ 235. The gladiatorial shows, L^idi Gladiatorii, were greatly admired in 
Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would innpart pleasure to 
the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were 
neld ; in the latter view they were appointed, e. g. al the funerals, or in com- 
Kiemoration, of the deceased. 

1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the ancient 
custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the departed. At 
Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals; afterwards ihey-were given by 
the .iEdile?, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especially on the 
festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. 

The g\ad\atoTS {nladiotores, lAoi^oixiixoi) were supported at public expense. Their resi- 
dence or place of instruction was called ludtis, a name often given to any arena or 
building, where such exercises were learned or practiced; their overseer was termed 
procurator, and their instructoi , hmista. In the public spectacles, the combat was often 
carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of 
the crowd of spectators. The'number of combatants was originally indeterminate, and 
until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore various names according to their arm.or and 
their mode of fighting. 

2. The gladiators termed seculores were armed with helmet, shield, and sword. 
They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a short tunic wiih 
nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed lance (tridens or fuscina), 
and in the right a net (re/p)in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. The 
mirmlllones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their 
helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thruces. The esscdarii fought 
from chariots, and the equites on horseback ; the andabalcs wore helmets which covered 
their eyes, and according to some writers, fought on horseback. Several other classes 
are named. — It is to be observed that the term gladiatores included those who fought 
with beasts as well as those, who fought with men ; although the former were termed 
distinctively hestinrii. 

3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves; but afterwards 
free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An advertisement 
or public notice (lihellus) was put up by the person [editor) who intended to exhibit a 
gladiatorial show, with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or 
picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena in 
procession, and then matched for the contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it 
was a sign of being vanquished; his fate depended on the spectators; if they wished 
him to be saved, they pressed down their thumbs; if to be slain, they turned up their 
thumbs ipolllcem premehant or vertehant). If a vanquished gladiator was spared, he 
was said to receive his discharge, which was termed missio, hence an exhibition in which 
the lives of the vanquished were not to be saved was said to be .sme missione. — Vast 
numl)ers of men and of brute animals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the 
triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 
animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully sup- 
pressed until the time of Honorius. 

In Plate XXX. are sseveral figures illustrating this stibjecl, which are taken from sculptures 
on the tomh of Scauriis found at Pompeii. Fi<,'. 1 represents an equestrian cornhat ; the anda- 
hat(P are clothed in the short cloak (mdiicula), and armed with the lance, round buckler (parma) 
helmet with a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on Ihe risrht arm. — Two g'adiators or; 
foot a[)pear in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet nnd the snblig-nrvlvm, a short apron fixed 
ahove the hips by a girdle. Fig 3 has iirmor on the right arm, and holds the sci tinn, or ionij 
shield ; on his right leg is a kind 'of buskin, and fin his left the ocren or greave ; the rest of the 
!)ody is naked; he has lowered his shield as heinu vanquished, and raised his hand to implom 
mercy of the snectators, F'g. 4 is behind liiiii. vviiiting for the sienal from them, wheiher to 
■ipare liis atilagonist or strike the dfiiili-lilow ; lif carries a smaller shield, has armor tipon his 
'iiicK.« and the high greaves upon his legs.— Fit' 6 presents a sroup of four gladiators; two art 
^oU, ifien (.•ieciiturcn), and two net-viev (rttiarii). One of the secntnre.s is wounded iti Ihe leg, 



PLATE XXX. 




*346 ROMAN ANTIQUITIii-S. 

thigh, and arm, and, having in vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee appa- 
rently to receive from the sword of his coinrade a more speedy death than would be likely fiom 
the trident of his aiitas;onist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to Insult his conquered 
rival. The other reliarius is waiting to fijrht in his turn with the ser.utor who is hastening to 
•=>nd the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures are the 
sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by them on 
tlie arena. The Fig. 8, with a lance in each hand, is from a group on the same tomb representing 
a young be.stiu7'iui^ preparing himself to contend in the arena. — Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on 
this toiob, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven through his breast, and 
rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded 

See Mazots, as cited P. IV. ^ 243. 2. — Pompeii, p 291, as cited P. IV. 226. 1. For minute details respecting gladiators, cf. J. 

f.iptivs. Saturnalia, in his Works Ant. 1637. 6 vols. fol. 

§ 236. The Ludi Florales were united with the festival of the goddess Flora, 
held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were instituted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; 
aftervi^ards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed again in con- 
sequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their 
omission. They lasted from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d 
of May; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged iri the celebration wore 
garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended 
to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ; 
and the sediles curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities 
of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus. 

§ 237 /. There were other games or sports {ludi)^ which we may just men- 
tion here. 

The Ludi MegalenseSi in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with 
shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (mutitare) between persons of the 
higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in I he Circus, in the memory of the rape of Pro- 
Berpine, and tjie consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The BlarLiales, dedicated 
to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The Apollmares, in honor of Apollo, and generally 
scenical. — The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from 
the Gauls. — I'he Pleheii. in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the re- 
covery of freedom. — The Co7isuules, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the 
seizure of the Sabine women. — The Ludi Auguslales {'Zr/Saara, and 'Avyo ardXia), in 
honor of Augustus. — The Ltidi Piscatorii, held on the sixth of June, near the Tiber, 
in behalf ol the fishermen. — Ajnong the games occasioned by vows and called ludi 
votivi; the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war; 
among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quinquennales, de- 
cennales. &c., given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class 
called exfraordinarii^ belonged such as were held at funerals, called Ludi Funebres ; 
and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called 
Ludi Jtcvenales. 

§ 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dramatic {ludi 
jcenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and ampitheatres were used. — In the first ages, 
theatres were constructed merely of wood, and were taken down after being used. 
.Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. 
Their construction was similar to that of Greek theatres; one side or end had 
the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rec- 
lanofular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built 
B. C. 59 by the aedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and sc 
capacious that eiorhty thousand spectators could sit in it. The theatres of 
PoiTippy and Marcellus wpre also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part 
still remains. 

1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf P. IV. § 235), consisted of three parts, 
the scena, orcfiestra, and cavea ; but the two latter are sometimes included under one 
;the cnvea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage 
ior scc7in); and the rows of seats in the orcJiestra were occupied by the senators, 
foreign ambassadors, and especially distinguished personages. The next fourtee?i 
rows of the cavea were assigned to the etjuites, and the rest of the people. Women 
occupied the por'ico surrounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augustus. — The 
itage. or portion allotted to the performers, liad several parts distinguished by name; 
one part was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a 
whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or sce.7ie.ry ; the part somctitnes concealed 
!)y a curtain {(vdcBum), which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when 
it wa? necessary to hide the* scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called 
fjeoslro); columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent 
(diaracter were exliil)ited, according to the nature of the plays. "^I'he post scenmm was 
'1 Miace behind the scene, v/here the actors changed their dresses, and the proscenium 



p. in. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AMPHITHEATRES. 247 

was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when 
speaking was termed puLpitum (KoyeZov, cf. § 89). 

A pliin of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate XLIX. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle 
BHBH is the orchestra; the circle is presented complete with the four eqiiilairial triangle^ in- 
scribed, in order to show the manner of determining tlie places for the icena, ihe postscenhivi, 
and the cunei ; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall s^everally on the ends of 
the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits requited ; Ihe diametei 
(HH) of the orchestra was usually one-third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theaiie. 
The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of th*^ orchestra. 

2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans are mentioned 
oarticularly in another part of this work ; see P. V. '5>'?» 308-320. — Among ihe musical 
mstruments employed were the flute, and the lyre or harp, and in later times ihe hy- 
draulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common accompaniments of comedy 
were the flutes termed (.ihim dexlrce or LydicB, and tihicR siiLislrcE or Serrance or Tyrice; 
the terms pares and impares are also applied to them. There has been some disagree- 
ment as to what these terms inean. It is most commonly supposed that the musician 
used two flutes at once or a double flute ; that the si7iislra had but few holes and 
sounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when 
these two were united they were termed impares, and took the oiher names because 
one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dextroB or two 
sinistrce were united and played upon by the m.usician, they were called pares. 

A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute ; sef our Plate XXVI. fi?. n, anJ cf. § 180. 2. 
—The use of the double flute is seen also in Plate XLIX. fi;. B, and in Plate XXIX. — Bnltt^er, Die F.ifindung der Fiote, in vol. ii. 
rf W^.eland's AttJsches Museum. — A. Manutius. De Tibiis Velerum, in Ugotinns, vol. xxxii. as cited § 197. 

3 Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian ; 
and were probably similar to those of the Greeks. Cf. § 89. 2. 

Several masks are represented in the beautiful mosaic eiven in Plate XLIX. fist. B B. — On theatres, plays, nia^ks, S;c. cf. Bemardi, 
Les jeux sceniques chez les Roraains, in the Mem. de Plwitilut, Ql asse (ffiist et Lit. J}nc. vol. viii. p. 2b0. — Duttlnp, as cited 
P. V.'§ 299. 8 — VVork styled Pompeii, cited P IV. § 226.^—/. L. Falridux, De Ludis Scenicis, in Gr-mtovius, vol. viii. — Botttger, 
Prolus. de Personis scenicis, vulg.o Larvis. Vinariae, 1794. 4. — FranciiCu de Fiorcmi, Disser'atio de larvis scenici?. Sec. Rom. (the- 
atrical Masques of the Romans). Rom. 1736. 4. with platts. — Boindin, Sur les Masques, &c. in the Mem. de CAcad. aes inscr, 
col. iv. p. 132. 

§ 239. The first cf«7^^?7^m/re was built B. C 45 by Julius Caesar, but merely 
of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of wnich, 
under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum (from a colossal statue of Nero, which 
stood near it), constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome, 
The form of ampitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were crenerally used foi 
gladiatorial shows and the ficrhtinff of wild beasts. Both theatres and atnphi- 
theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods. 

1. The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus Curio 
actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of ihis 
sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, in which dra- 
matic plays were performed in the morning; then by maciiinery for the purpose he 
suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other, thus constituiing an amphi- 
theatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is some- 
times put for the amphitheatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the 
gladiators fousht, and was so called from its being covered with sand. The arena was 
'surrounded wiih a wall, guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sockeis, to pre- 
vent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded 
with a ditch filled with water (eun'pi/s). Next around the arena was the podium, raised 
12 or 1.5 feet above it, projecting over the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. On 
this gallery or terrace, which was wide enough for two or three row? of moveable 
seals, senators, ambassadors, and persons of special distinction were seated ; here also 
♦he emperor had his seat {suggesfiis, or cuhicuhnn). Above the podium were the fixed 
seats (£7-orf7/.<;), divided into stories or sloping portions called maiiia7ia. '^ he first, next 
to thepodiiun. included fourteen rows of marble seats appropriated to the Kquites. In 
the second and ihird mcp.niana, were se.Tts occupied by the people and called populnria. 
The m(p.nia7i(i were separated by \)n^s-<\ges [prcrcinctianes) running -in ihe direciioii of ihe 
seats; there were also passajres (.«ff//(?) running transversely ; thus were formed several 
compartments in the shape of wedges (jcnnei). The women, afier they were allowec 
to attend the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to liic whole of 
these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the 
amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled Villicus nmjthitheotri. and persons. 

•lalled designotores, were employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. By 

a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret lubes around these 
structures, and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues wliich adorned 
the interior. —The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for covering '"he vast 
area embraced in such a building; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes 
stretched across the buildinff and attached to m.asts or soars, which rose above the svim- 



248 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

mit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 20C 
jjrojectino; blocks of slone, wiih holes cut to receive the ends of the spars, which ran up 
through ludos cuf in the cornice. 

2. In our Plate XXX. tig. 7, is a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Its extreme length, 
from niitsidf' to outside of tiie e.xterior arcade, is 430 feel; its greatest breadth is 335 feet. It 
consists chietiy of the rough masonry called opun incertiiw, with quoins of sfjiiared stone, and 
some liitliiig restnraiions of nihhle. This rude mass was probably once covered with a facing 
of hewn stone. — At <^ach end of the ellipse are entrances into the arena for the combatants; 
through these also the dead bodies were dragged out into the spnliarium. On the podium were 
found several inscriptio|is containing the names of the duumvirs who had presided ; there were 
also fresco-|).iiiitings, which soon disap[)eared on being exposed to the atmosphere. There are 
iweiity-fiinr rows of seats ; and the building, jis has been estimated, would accommodate above 
10,000 p(-rs()iis silting, besides such as might stand. 

Coiiite dt Ciiylus. Theatre of (. urin, in ihe Mem. Jicad. I'Scr xxiii. 369. — Cf. Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. Od various 

e.yisliiii; mini; (if .imphiilieilies, fitnarVs Diet, of Arcliiteclure. lAiiid. 1<32. 3 vols. 8.—.^ Gordon, Hislory of the Ancient Amphi 
ttie.^Te->, Ir.iiislaieii from llie Ilaliaii of Maffei. i.oiid. 1730. 8. 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of Rome it is 
necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its history; particularly 
to notice the three different forms of government which were successively. es- 
tablished, the regal, consular, and imperial. The first continued 244 years to 
B. C. 510; the second 479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the 
overthrow of the western empire, A. D 476, and afterwards in the eastern. — 
Under the KingH the. government was of a mixed character, and we should esti- 
mate the powers of the kings by a reference to the early kings and princes 
among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according 
to more modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives of 
the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the superintendence 
of the legislation and of jitdicial decisions, aitd the assembling of the senate and 
the people; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in most 
cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the people had in the 
public concc^rns. 

1 u. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted 
of a golden crown, a chair (seZZa) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter 
of the same material, with an eagle on its exiremiry, a white robe {tQga)vi'\\\\ purple 
embroidery or bordeuings, &c. . a body of twelve aitendants (Z/c/ore.'?), who went before 
the king, carrying each a bundle of rods {fasces) with an ax (securis) in the middle. 

In our Plate XXXI. fig. 1, is a cut representing the securis bound op in the fusees. The fasces 
are often reinesented on the consular coins. — FiiT. 3, is a i:roup of royal scepters, drawn I'rom 
.Egyfitian monuments; showing various forms and ornaments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI. 
fig. 1, and fig. 3, where scepters are seen in the hands of Jupiter and .Juno. 

2u. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for 
the prolialile reigns of only seven kings, which is the nuntlier specified in the traditions 
respecting ihis period. But it must be remarked that the whole of the early Roman 
history is at least uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous. Cl. P. V. $510. 

§ 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution becanje aristocratical. 
Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and influence which 
the kings had possessed, and called Comu/s {ccmsu/es). No particular age was 
originally requisite for this office, but a law (/f.r nnnalis) was enacted 180 B. C, 
that it should be hpld by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought 
the office, were called cmididati^ from their peculiarly white shining robe {toga 
candi(la). The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by 
Centuries, usually towards the end of July or the begrjnning of August. From 
that time tintil January of the following year, the person chosen was called cnn- 
sill fle.-:i<r?iattis, -and then he entered upon his office under many soleiuoities. 
The two consuls had equal power. At first, both were chosen from the patri 
cians; afterwards, however, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from thfi 
plebeians. 

1 74. Their badges of office were the same as those of the kittgs, excepting the /rolden 
crown, and the robe with piu-ple ornaments; the latter was allowed them on certaui 
public solctnnities, as e. g. a triumph. 

2u. The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, assembling the senate, 
'declaring the votes, among which they first gave their own, in proposing business to 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PRiETORS. jEDILES. 249 

the senate and the people, fixing the comitia, appointing the judges, and preparing de- 
clarations of war. They were also usually commanders of the army, and were required 
to attend to all its wants, and inform the senate of all important occurrences. After 
comjjleting the year of their office they were usually proconsuls or governors of pro- 
vinces. The power of the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution 
of the office of dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which auihorized appeals 
from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more 
than the mere name remained ; they were merely the agents to execute the imperial 
will, to whom a few privileges were secured. In" the later ages also, their number was 
increased, and the term of continuance very short. The office was preserved until 
A. D. 541 (after the overthrow of the western empire, cf. P. I. *$> 214. 6), when it was 
conferred upon the reigning emperor for life. 

^ 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Caesar, 
prepared the way for introducing the imperial government ; which was established in 
the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government 
now became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors adhered, in lorm, 
to the old usages and customs in a great degree. But under 'J iberius, the immediate 
successor of Augustus, the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under 
succeeding emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated 
in their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices were 
created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government was at length 
turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and luxury. 

De la Bletterie, on the Roman Governmenl under the Kmperors, in the Mem. Acad, [user vol. xix. 357, and ssi. 299, power ol 
Emperors; vol. xxiv. 261, power of Consuls; vol. xv. 392, of Tribunes; xxvii. 43S, of Sena e. — G'oUii'yig, Geschichle der Rom. 
Staalsverfassung. Halle, 1840. 

§ 243. Praetor was in early times the name for any mag-istrate, siofnifyino 
merely an overseer, superintendant, or leader (from prxire). But, in the year 
B.C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer appointed to attend to the 
administration of justice. The Praetor was at first chosen from patricians, 
when the consulship was communicated to the plebeians. Two Praetors were 
chosen after the year B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens 
{Praetor urbanus), the other the business of stranaers [Praetor peregrinus). 
Afterward there were four Praetors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, and even 
eighteen, until Augiistus, it seems, limited the number to twelve. 

1 u. The dignity of the city-Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his principal 
business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal {in or pro trihunali), a building 
appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (§ 261). The Pragtor on entering upon his 
office, always published a statement of the rules and principles by which he should be 
guided in his trials and decisions ; this was called his edict [edictum Prcptoris). The 
usual form in giving his decisions was do, dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, 
the city-Praetor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Co- 
mitia ; he had the care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the 
ProBtor v/ere the toga prcBtexta., a sword and a s^pe^x {gladius et hasta), and an atten- 
dance of six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, 
in the same manner as the Procon-uls took the place of Consuls. 

2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Praetor pulili^hed particular 
edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were 
termed tralatilia; those framed by himself, nova. An edict published at Rome. 
ediclum urhanum; in a province, provinciate; sometimes named from the province, as 
ediclum Sicitiense. Other magistrates {ho?iorati) published ejdicts also. The law de- 
rived from, all the various edicts wa.'; termpd j-zn tionorarium; this term or phrase, in 
later times, was applied to a collection of Praetor's edicts regularly arranged by order 
of the emperor Hadrian ; the same was also called ediclum perpet num. 

Huvchard, Siir les Edi's des magisfrafs Romains, Mem Accul. Imcr. vol xxxix. 279, edicts of Consuls ; vol. xli p. I- of Prs-.tors; 
xlii. 149, of /Eililes; xlv. 439, of Prasfects.— A £. Sduader, Die Pr.lto'riichen Edicte. Weini. itiiS.— Rein, Das Roniische Privat 
redit, &c. Leipz. 1836. 

§ 244. ^diles were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the care of the 
buildings {aedes). They were of two classes, plebeii and curules, two of each. 
The former were created first, B. C. 493; the latter, B. 0. 2G6. At a later 
period, Julius Caesar added two others, called Cerea/es who had the oversighi 
if the stores of grain and provision. In the Roman provinces, also, there were 
Ediles whose office was usually hut for a year. — The office seems to have con- 
tinued until the time of Constantine the Great. 

] u. The Mdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public and orivate buildings, 
and were required to make arrangements for the public games, see .o me pr(\srr»-»t> ■ j 

20 



«450 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of the public roads, regulate the markets, prove the justness of weights ani measures, 
and in short attend to the poHce of the city. 

2 u. The JEdiles Curules were distinguished from them by the toga prcetexta, and 
the sella ciirulis. They were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards 
also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. They had also 
the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the 
plebeian ^diles, with whom the Curules probably shared, without distinction, the 
business of the police. 

For Ihe history, duties, &c. of the ^diles, see Schubert, De Romanorum ^dilibus. Regiom. 1828. 8. 

§ 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes of the 
people (Jrihuni plchis) were the most remarkable. The office originated from 
the general disaffection and secession of the plebeians, B. C. 493. The number 
was first two, then five, finally ten. One of them always presided at the Com- 
itia for electing tribunes. Their proper object was the protection of the people 
against the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this 
office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families. In 
the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but had their seats 
before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and 
could hinder the passage of any decree by the single word veto. By the Atinian 
law, B. C. 131, it was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena- 
tors. Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was confined 
to the city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not be 
absent over night. 

] u. The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a kind of beadles 
called viafores, who went before them. 'J'heir persons were regarded as inviolable. 
Sylla abridged their power; he took from them the right, which they had exercised, of 
assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments {plebiscita) binding 
upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their negative or intercession 
[intercede re). Their authority, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under 
Julius Caesar it was small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf. 
^ 242), who appropriated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes an- 
nually elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished 
in the time of (^-onstantine the Great. 

2. The office of the Military Tribunes was highly important, but is not ranked among the 
permanent offices. Cf. $ 248. 

§ 246. The Quaestors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, first ap- 
pointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the people. They 
were charged with receiving and managing the revenues, and with the scrutiny 
of certain kinds of bloodshed. Those for the city were called Quaesi ores urb ani ; 
those for the provinces, Quaeslores provinciaks ,• and those for the examination of 
capital offences, Qusestores rerum capitalium, or parricidii. Originally there 
were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number to 
twenty, and .Tulius Caesar to forty. 

I ?t. The Quaestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of foreign am- 
nassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect publicly 
authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were at first 
taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians. 

Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called qu(Bs tores can didati, who 
were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or secretaries, and 
were afterwards called juris ijilerpret es . precum arbitri, &c., from their employment. 
Stili later there was another kind, of considerable importance, styled QucBStores palalii, 
r»r Mafiistri ofjiciorum. 

I. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by Au- 
';ustus to 22. '^Fhe office was one of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth, 
although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. 

Dndwell, de Qnaeslurae oheundae tempore legitimo, in his Pradect. Acad. p. 362, as cited P. V. § 542. 7. — Walter, Gesehichte Jea 
Pom. Rechts. 

§ 247. The office of the Censors (Censores) was established at an early period, 
B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their office originally for five 
years, but afterwards onjy a year and a half. Their duties were various; the 
following were some of the principal ; to take the census of the people, an ac 
■■urate account of the age, property, and descent of each head of a family, to 
•ijvide the people into their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution. 



p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. Sol 

to decide the taxes of each person, to enroll those who were ohligated to military 
service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect the morals 
of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts 
respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, aqueducts and the like. 

] u. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace [jioia censoria, ignommia). 
from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to them suiiable. I'he luxury 
of the Romans, which in later times became so excessive, was considerably restrained 
by the censors. In order to escape the censorial rebukes or punishments, the office 
seems to have been left vacant for some time. 

2. 'l"he censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of 
Prcefectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus also assumed 
the power, although he declmed the tttle. The same was done by several of his suc- 
cessors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the corruption of morals was 
too great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind. 

De yalois, On the Roman Censors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 63.— A'^/eiuAr's Hist, of Rome, vol. ii. p. 296, ed. Phil. 1835. 

^ 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common division was 
into ORDINARY and extraordinary (Magistratus Ordinarii sr\d Exlranrdinarii). The 
chief of the former have been noticed: Consuls, Praetors, ^I^diles, Tribunes of the 
people, Quaestors, and Censors. — The chief of the exiraordinary magistrates (whose 
office was not permanent, but occasional, being necessary only in particular circum- 
stances) were the following; Dictator, Decemvirs, Military 'I'ribunes, Prstecl of the 
City, and Interrex. 

i It. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection 
which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (*^ 245); and similar dis- 
turbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occasioned ihe appointment 
of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were appointed tor less iinportani reasons, 
e. g. for regulating the public games and sports in the sickness of the Pr£etor, not by 
the people, but by one of the Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by 
the consul by order of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The 
power of the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the 
decision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who were condemned 
to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf Liv. viii. 33). 'J'he power and office of 
the Dictator was hmiied to six months. He could not appropriate without consent of 
the senate or people any of the public money. As commander of the army, he was 
confined to the limits of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this offi<^e so much 
as Cornelius Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and afier 
his death the dictatorship was abolished. It was. however, oflered to Augustus, who 
refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 

2. PIntarch and PnJybius state that the Dictator was attended by twenty-four lict'Ts ; but in 
the epitome of the 89th hool< of Mvy. Syll i is said to have unwarrantably assiiined this nmnbei 
(Kenvefl, p. 123t. Tiie Dictator appointed (usually from among those of consular or praetorian 
dignity) an I'fficer, styled Magister equitum, wtiose business was to command the cavalry, am) 
execute the orders of the Dictator ; hut this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, or 
the people ; he was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order 
of tfie people. — Souietimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was iiivesfid with the power 
of Dictator, by decree of the senate (»ie quiddetrimenti capiat, respublica). 

3 u. 'i'he discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made of their 
'power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri, 

with consular authority [decemviri cousidari polestate, s. legibus ferendis). "^I'hey were 
appointed for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws 
of the twelve tables (cf. 'S 265). As they soon began to abuse their great power, the 
office was abolished, B. C. 449, and that of Consul restored 

4 21,. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of IMilitar} 
Tr\b\ines{frihjmi milificrn consi/Jari potealafe), who, in the year B. C. 445, were ap 
pointed in the place of Consuls; but were dismissed after three months. Orisiuallj 
they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians; afterwards the iiuml)er 
varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military triiiunes and 
sometimes co'suls were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed, 
until the year B. C. 366, when the plebeians were quieted by the choice ot a consul 
fi Dm among 'hemselves. 

5 u. Th'^ Piaefect of the c'wy {Prcpfecf us urhl)wns the officer to whom the Consuls in 
their absence, especially in war, intrusted (he charge of the police. Under the emperotJ 
this becatne a regular and permanent office of srreat influence. 

6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there was no consu' ■♦ 
\nagistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the title of the 
temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a vacancy in the 
throne under the regal government. 

?i 249. Less important occasional magistrates were the following; the Prctfccfus 
unnmae, charged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases o^'scarritv : Hit' 



252 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Quinqueviri mouarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses {jrinuendh 
puMicis sumtibus) ; the Quinqueviri viuris txirrihu^que reficiendis, to see to repairs in 
the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri cRdihus sacris reficiendis, to repair the sacreu 
buildings; Triumviri monetales, having charge of the mint; Triumviri 7iocturni, to 
superintend ihe nightly watch ; Duumviri navales (classis or?iandce reficiendceque cauka), 
for equipping and repairing the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not magistrater 
in the proper sense, but they were chosen from among the most respectable men. 

The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparitores; under 
which were included scribse, notarii, actuarii, accensi, coactores, praecones, interpre- 
tetes lictores, viafores, &c. — The Camifex was the executioner or ha?igmaii. 

§ 250. Besides the magistrates which have been named, permanent or 
occasional, there were various others whose authority pertained to the provinces 
of Rome, provincial maaistrates. These were in part such as have been 
named. Among them were the proconsuls, propraetors, prnqiiaestors, the legates, 
conquisitors, &c. 

Proco7i!tuls were either {}) such as being consuls had their office prolonged beyond 
the time fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to govern some 
province or to command in war; or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately 

I the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces assigned to their charge under 
the commonwealth; or (4) such as were appointed governors of the provinces under 
the empire; as all these were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly 
belonged to the third of these classes. — The senate decided from year- to year what 
provinces should be consular; and then the consuls, while only desig7iali{cL§ 241), agreed 
by lot which of them each should take on the expiration of his consulship. A vote of 
the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their 
departure to their provinces and return to the city was often attended with great pomp. 
They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, but it was limited to a 
year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most commonly 
charged were {\) crime?i peciilatus, ill use of the public money, (2) rncijestatis, treachery 
or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repelundarum, ex 
tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. 

The ProprcBlors were such as, after their praetorship, received provinces, in which 
(or a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. Their creation, 
administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the Pr. consuls; only they 
had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were usually smaller 
than the consular ; cf. § 260. 3. (4). The Legad were the chief assistants of the Pro- 
consuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief officer, and 
the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained importaint authority as 
military commanders. One QncBstor or more attended each Proconsul or Proprae- 
tor. His business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the 
army. Proqusestors were such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on the ab- 
sence or death of the provincial Quaestor (cf. *?> 246). The duties of the Quaestor were 

assigned under the emperors to the officerstyled Procurator Ccpanris. The conqui- 

sitores were inferior officers not properly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers, 
and by force if necessary. 

§ '251. We may notice here the division or classijicalion of ihe people^ which 
had throughout an important influence on the government. -^At the beginning, 
Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into three tribes, and each 
of these into ten Curix. The tribes were the Rhaninensis, consisting of native 
Romans, the Tatiensis, of Sabines, and the tribus Liicerum, of all other foreigners. 
— Servius TuUius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city 
{tribiis nrba7ias), and 26 for the territories [tribus rustics). The latter at length 
gained the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honorable. 
Five tribes were added at a later period; and also others, which were not 
permanent. 

The four rit7j tribes were Siihurana or Succnsana, Esqnilina, Collina, Palatina ; the rustic 
tribes, Rniriilia. Lenionia, Pnpina, Galeria, Pollia, Vnliitiia, Claudia, iErnilia. Cornelia, Fahia, 
Horatia, Rlenenia, Papiria. Serbia, Veuiria, Crnslninina ; these l)eloiiKed to the proper Roman 
territory; in addition there were the -fJ^rj/rmTj <7-?/;<'s, Vfjentina, Stelhititia, Tr"nientina, Saba- 
titia, Arnieiisis, Pomptina, Piihlilia or Papilla, Moecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Faierina; and the 
Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Quiriiia; making thidy-one. 

Boivin, On (lie Rom. Tribes, in the Mem. Jjcad. Iiiscr. vol i. 72. — Ci. C. T. Francke, I)e Tribuum Curianim, atque Centuriarum 
Kltioiie. Schlesw. 1824. RfspectitJg the buildints termed Curiz, cf. P. t. § 61 

§ 252. Servius Tullins also divided the Roman citizens, for the sake of an 
equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes according to pro- 
061 ty These classes were subdivided into C67j/Mr?es amounting in all to 193 In 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS. PLEBEIANS. 253 

order to preserve this distribution, an ordinance was established jequirin^ the 
3ensus and valuation to be taken every five years (cf. § 247). 

" The first class consisted of those whose estates in lands and efTects were worth at 
least 100.000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 10,000 drachma! according to the Gj-eel< 
way cf computing ; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to £322, 18s. 4d. sterling ; 
but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 asses, as was the case afterwards, 
it will amount to iJ7750. This first class was subdivided inio eighty centuries or com- 
panies of foot, forty of young men ijuniorum), frojn seventeen to forty-six years of age, 
who were obliged to take the held {ict foris hella gererent), and forty of old men (se- 
niorum), who should guard the city {ad urbis cuslodiam ul prcp-stu esseut). To these 
Vt'ere added eighteen centuries of Eqiiites, who fought on horseback ; in all ninety- 
eight centuries. — • Ihe second class consisted of twenty csnfuries, ten of young men, 
and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To these were added 
two centuries of artihcers ifabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. to manage the engines ot 
war. — The third class hkewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 50,000 
asses. — The fourth class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 25,000 
asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — 'I'he fifth class 
was divided into thirty centuries; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dio- 
nysius 12,500. — The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or 
were not worth so much as those of the fifth class. The number of them was so great 
as to exceed that of any of the other classes ; yet they were reckoned as but one century, 
— Thus the number o{ centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193. 

Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according to 
the valuation of their fortunes. — Those of the first class were called Classici; all the 
rest were said to be Infra Classem; hence classici auctores, for the most approved 
attthors (A. Gell. vn. 13. xix. 8). 

By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who com- 
posed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more centuries 
than all the rest put toge'her ; but they likewise bore the c'larges of peaceand war {micnia 
pads et belli) in proportion. For as the votes of the Comitia, so likewise the quota of 
soldiers and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. Accordingly the first class, 
which consisted of nine y-eight, or. according to Livy, of one hundred centuries, 
furnished more men and money to the public service than all the rest of the state 
besides. But they had hkewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by 
centuries. For the Equifes and the centuries of this class were, called first to give 
their vo'es, and if they were unanimous the milter was de'erinined ; but if not, then 
the centuries of the next cla'^s were called, and so on. till a majority of centuries had 
voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest 
{Liv. i. 43. Dimiys. vii. 59)." (Adnm.) 

Huschke, I)i; Vcrfn«suii^HesServii)s Till tins. Leipz 1838 — Zumpt, Ueherdie Ahsfiminun? des Rom.Vnlkes in Centurial Comitiea. 
—UntarholZ'ia; Dp Mutata Criiturj toriitn Cnniit a Seiv. '\'\i'.l. Re?, ins'itu'orum Ralione. Bresl. 1835. 

§ 253. Another division of the Romans, existintj from the earliest times, was 
into Patricians and F/eheians, accordinor to family descent. The Patricians 
were the descendants of the Senators appointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Pafres, 
of whom he selected three from each tribe, and three from each curia, making 
ninety-nine; to these he added a man of distinoruished merit, so that the Senate 
originally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were admitted 
into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this num- 
ber by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who were termed Fatres minoruni 
gentium, to distingruish them from the original Senators, and their descendants 
were called Fatricii minonim gentium. 

I u. The word populus had among the Romans a more general meaning than plehs; 
tne iormer signified the whole body of the Rojnan people ; the latter, a particular por- 
tion distinct from the senators and the knights, and called also, ordo pleheius. In early 
times, this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the 
republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we denominate the populace. 

2. There is some disagreement as to the time when the formal distinction between 
Patricians and the Plebeians really commenced, 'i'he exis'ence of Plebeians in the 
time of Romulus is implied in some passages of ancient au'h()rs(cf Liv. i. 8. Diont/s. 
i. 8. h. 9). But Niebuhr and others have maintained that the Plebeian commonaliiy 
arose out of the removing to Rome of the ci'izens of Alba, af'er its destruction in the 
reign of TuUus Hostilius; that before that time the Patricians included the whole iiody 
oi the populus Romanus; that in the time of Servius the Plebeians were established 
in their distinctive character as free hereditary proprietors ; and that from this time the 
Roman nation consisted of two estates, the populus or body of burghers, and the pith* 
or commonality. 

See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 234, 309. ed Phil. 1835.— ;2ei7j, ... Ersch und GrUler, Encyciop' ne ; tnd Schmitz, .t 
Smiths Diet, of An:iq. p. 726, 765. 



254 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ '254. The patricians and plebeians were from the beorinning greatly al 
variance. 'I'he former at first held all the public offices exclusively. The 
plebeians gained a share in them B. C 493, as has been already mentioned 
(cf. § 245). After this the patricians often allowed themselves to be adopted 
into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure offices, which were 
common to both ranks, or confined to plebeians, as was the office of tribunes. 
The power of the people rose to a great height during the time of the republic, 
and often was perverted to the greatest abuses. 

1 ti. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. 445. Previously 
to intermarriages the only mutual relation \vas that oi patron and client ,• in which the 
plebeian made free choice ot some patrician as his guardian and patron, and this pa- 
trician in turn was obligated by certain duties lo ihe plebeian as his client. At last 
this relation existed chiefly between masters and Ireedmen. 

2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many cHenis, both 
hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of this relation [clientela) were 
considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil {Jilii. vi. 605) joins the crime ot injuring a 
client with that of abusing a parent ; the chent on the other hand was expected to serve 
his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark 
the Roman history, there seems to have been a mutual and i'ailhful observance of these 
duties. In later times cities and nations chose as patrons distinguished families oi 
individuate at Rome. 

§ 255. It is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, and what 
was called Roman nobility {nobilitas liomnna). The latter was a dignity result- 
intr from merit, either ))ersonal or derived from ancestors, and acquired espe- 
cially by holding a curule office. Patrician descent was not necessary for this, 
although when united with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired 
this nobility themselves, were styled novi ho/nines. 

1 u. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility {iiohiles) was 
the juK Imaginum, which allowed them to form images or busts in painted wax of 
their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls {atria), and carrying them in funeral 
processions (cf. ^ 340. 3), and at other solemnities. 'I he right was soineiimes conferred 
as a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks. 'I'he Roman 
history is filled with contests between the old and the new nobihty. 

2. A curule office was one which emit led the person holding it to use \\ie.geUa curulis 
or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, and curule aedile. 

Ttie chrnr was composed of ivory, or at least hietily adorned with it, commonly being a sort 
of "stool withnnt fi back, witii four crooket] feel, fixnd to the extremities of cross-[))eces, joined 
by a coiruiion axis, sotTiewhat in ttie form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that it 
might be folded together." and thus easily carried by Ihe magistrate 'n his chariot ; hence the 
epithet curulis. (l/iiil. Gell.Yn. 18.) In otir Plate XXXI. fig. 9 is a representation of one an- 
swering tlie above description. " But the silla appears to have been sometimes of a less portable 
form and size, as seen in tiff- - of ibis plate These two fiLMires are from monuments found, the 

one at Pompeii, the other at Herciilaneinn. Tlie ch;iir above described must be dislingnished 

from the sella portntoriu, or cathedra ; tliis was a sedan in whicli a person sat and was carried 
by slaves, in the manner still cnnimon in the east. They were used by private persons as well 
as rulers and officers They were very frequent in Ihe time of Osar. (Svet. Cses. 4.3. Cland. 28 ) 
— Fiir. 10. in Plate XXXI. is fron; an Egyptian montimeni, and serves well to illustrate the *e^- 
la ynrtaioria. There are four hearers; a fifth attendant hears a staff in his risht hand, perhaps 
the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol richly embroidered is 
stretched t)''hind the occupant of Ihe chair, on a frame fu- Ihe purpose. The sedan itself is of 
elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devices. — The magistrates in the colonies 
and municipal tfiwns sat on piil)lic occasions in a large chair called biselliinn ; two of these 
have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of exlraordinary vvork- 
inanship. 

• See Ihe Mu.seo Borionko, cited P. IV. ^ 213. vol ii. lav. 31. vi. lav. 28.— Pompeii, p. 265, as cilea P. IV. § 226. 

§ 256. The Equites formed a distinct body of high rank in Rome (ordo eques/er). 
They were originally composed of 100 youno- men taken from each of the three 
tribes, thus making three centuries (300). Their number was greatly increased 
by the kings, so that there were eighteen centuries under Servius Tullius. They 
became at length a distinct order, not includinof all who served on horsebaciv, 
but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, the order 
received some iinportant prer-^gatives, being chosen to act as judges, and to 
farm the revenues. The pro|)erty requisite toqualify one for election as a knight, 
»t this period, was 400 -thousand sesterces (cemus eqiiesfer); the age ab(-u( 
eighteen; nubility of descent was not sufficient to secure it. The Cens«^rs 
wet', intrusted with the scrutiny, and they presented to those found worthy a 



PLATE XXX T. 




256 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

norse at the public expense; hence the phrase, equo publico merere The ordei 
was under the constant supervision of the Censors. 

1. Plebeians as well as Patricians were eligible to this order. The term illusf,re& 
was applied to those descended irom ancient ianiilies. The number ot'equites greatly 
increased under the early emperors. Persons were admitted into the order, it they 
possessed the requisite property, without inquiry into their character, or the h'ee 
birth of their father and grandt'ather. 

2 m. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring {annuhis aureus) or rings, and 
by the tunica anguslidavia, a while tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower 
than that of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the senators, wlio 
were frequently chosen from the equestrians. '1 hey made annually, on the 15th ol 
July, a splendid procession (transvecl io) through the city to the Capitol. 

Marqjtnrdi, Historia Equiluni Romannruin. Berl. iSW. — Zimipt, Ueber die Roiiiiscliea Riiter uiid den Ritterstand in Rom. Bert 
li:40.~ Eybeiiius, l)e Or.l. equestri Vet Roniannruni, in Sallcngrc, vol. i. — P. Burmann, as cited § 338. 2, 

§ 2.57. The Senate, as has been already staled (§ 253), originally consisted 
of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the regral office was 
abolished, of 300. Sylla added 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600. 
Towards the end of the republic, the number was as great as 1000. Augustus 
reduced it to 600. Urider his successors the nutnber was not uniformly the 
same. — The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Fatres Conscripti. 
Their election was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards 
by the censors, and in one instance, after ti)e battle of Cannae, by a Dictator. 
Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed to attend to the 
election. In the choice of senators, regard was had to character, property, and 
age, which must not be less than twenty-five. 

1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two things; the 
tunica laticlavia, a tunic or waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple {latus clavus) at- 
tached to it, and high black buskins (crtZcei or ocrecp, nigri colcris), which had the letter 
C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also sat in the foremost part 
of the Orchestra. 

2 u. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Praetors, or 
Tribunes of the people, by public summons {edictum), or by means of a herald. In 
the former case the object of assembhng was specified. There were, besides, certain 
days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every 
month. On festivals and in time of the Comitia when the whole people were as- 
sembled, the senate could not meet. Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the 
Calends and Ides. The place of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be 
set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the Augurs. The temples, and the Ca- 
pitol amongst them, were usually selected, excepting alw^ays the Temple of Vesta. — 
The number of members necessary {namerus legitimus) to pass a decree {Sefiatus 
conftultum) was 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. "^I'he meetings were opened 
early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before and after the 
light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were always offered 
and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold the senate, before entering 
the place of meeting. The magistrate, then, Consul, Praetor, or whoever assembled 
the senate, proposed the business, and the members gave their opinions usually in ar 
established order. In important or interesting cases, questions were decided by the 
Senators separating into two parts (ifio in partes). The emperors had the right of pro- 
posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission. — • 
A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Senotus consultum. and a 
judgment or opinion, Se?iatus aucloritas; the latter term was applied, when the sen- 
tence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto, 
or. was attended with some informality; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or 
written out, and lodged in the treasury (m JErarium condehantur) in the place of public 
rtcordfi {fahiila rium), in the temple of Saturn. 

3. " Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they seldom 
enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the 
method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliberate and decree, and 
then the people order. But there were many things of great importance which the 
Senate always determined itself, unless when they were brought before the people 
ny the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the Senate seems to have had, not 
from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed 
to themselves guardianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be intro- 
duced, nor altar erected, not the Sibylline books consulted, without their order. — ■ 
2. The Sena'e had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at 
pleasure. They appoitited sti])ends to their generals and officers, and provisions and 
c.Io'hing for their armie.s. — 3. They settled the provinces, which were annually assigupd 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. 257 

to the Consuls and PriEtors ; and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. 
They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave 
to foreign ambassadors what answers they thought proper. — 5. '1 hey decreed all public 
thanksgivings for victories obtained ; and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph, 
with the title oi Imperalor, on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the tit-le ot 
King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vote. — 
7. '1 hey inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in Rome or other parts of 
Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities. 
— 8. '1 hey exercised a power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men 
from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. — 9. 1 hey could postpone the 
assemblies of the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases ol any 
imminent danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous 
in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, 
Uliimum or Extremum, used to be passed (cf. *^ 248. 2), That the consuls should take 
care that the republic should receive fto harm.^'' (Adam.) 

C. Middlelon, Treatise on Rom. Senate. Lond. 1747. 8 Also in his Mi^ctll. Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols 8.— 7*. Chapman, 
E'say on the Rom. Senate. Canibr. 1750. 8. — N. Hooke, Observations on the Roman Senate, as treated by Middleton, Chapman, &c. 
Lond. I75S 8 — Spelrnan, Dissertation, &c. in his Trans, of Dionys. Hal. cited P. V. § 247. 4 — Blelterie, as cited § 242. — Walttr, 
Geschichte des Kom. Rechts. — Bach, Zimmerin, &c. cited P. V. § 571. 

§ 258. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Comiiia. The 
word comiiium. originally signified the place of assembling', which was an 
open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court-house of Hostilius; it was 
afterwards applied to the assembly itself, consisting of three ranks or orders of 
the Roman people, and held at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the 
Capitol. Assemblies of one or two orders were called Coticih'a ,• and less formal 
ones, where merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing 
w;as decided, were termed Coiiciones. The Comiiia were appointed only by the 
higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Praetor. 
The most important subjects were considered in these assemblies, some of which 
have been already mentioned incidentally. 

§ 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be held, 184 in 
number, were called dies comitiales. Romulus established the Comitia Curia/a, 
in which the votes were given by Curise (§ 251); Servius Tullius the Comitia 
Ceniuriata^ in which the people voted by centuries, and which were the most 
important; and the Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comiiia Tributa, in 
which the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned 
were termed Pkbisc'ta, and at first were binding only on the plebeians. — The 
election of officers, which became the principal business of the Comitia, was 
chiefly made at the Comiiia Ceniuriala. These were held in the Campus 
Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might assemble. 

1 u. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied an 
elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or narrow 
passages ['pontes, 'ponliculi) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon as they went to 
vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a balustrade, forming what 
was called the Septa ox Ovile. Outside of this the people stood until they were called 
in {intro vocafce) to vote century by century through the six successive classes. The 
order, in which the centuries voted, was determined by lot (soriilio), the names being 
thrown into a box (sitella) and drawn out by the presiduig magistrate. I'he votes 
were by means of ballots (tubellcB), which were given to each citizen by persons {diri- 
bitores) standing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the 
citizens into vi box or chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting 
was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or 
judicial sentences. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed 
to vote. 

2. "By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out the 
tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or po'mi {pnnctum) in anuthe.f 
tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by most points 
gave occasion to the phrase, Omrie tnlit punctvm, and the like." {Kennvtt.) — It is ob- 
vious, that in the Comitia Centuriata the mode of voting must give the higher classes 
an entire preponderance over the others. 

Respecting the Con itia, sue Hiuchke, Zurript, &c. cited § 2i2 — Walter, Geschichte d. Rom. Reclits. Respeclini: the C^mput 

Martius, cf. P. I. § 65. — G. Piranesi, Campus Martius antiquae Urbis. Rom. 1762. fol. 

§ 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several important privileges, 
especially during the freedom of the state. The life and property of a citizen 
Wbie in the power of no one but of the whole people appealed to thereon; no 



258 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

magistrate could punish him by stripes; he had a full right over his property, 
his children, and his dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of tbe people 
and in the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full authority 
after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full citizenship in- 
cluding this could be bestowed only by the people; citizenship embracing the 
other rights could be conferred by the senate also. All freedmen and their 
children were excluded from this right, which is what was properly meant by 
the Jus Quiritium. 

1 u. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, even 
by banishment ; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign alle- 
giance. The Jus Quiriliuin privatum, cunferred on the colonies and municipal towns, 
comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges; in the case of'tlie Laiin colonies 
it was called Jus Laliiox Lali/tilalis; of the Italian, Jus Iialicum. Still more limited 
were the privileges included in the Jura provmclaru?n and Jura prcpfecturarum. 

2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public ; both 
are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes under that 
of Jus civilatis; and sometimes these phrases seem to be limited respectively to the 
rights termed private or public. — i'o the private, belonged the following; 1. Jus 
libertatis, which secured to each the control of his person ; 2. Jus gentis et familicE, 
which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control 
over his children; 4. Jus dominii legitimi, the possession of legal property; 5. Jiis 
testamenfi and hceredifatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by will ; 6. Jus 
tuteI(B, the right to appoint by will guardians lor his wife and children. '1 o the public, 
belonged the following ; 1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled by the censor; 
2. Jus mililicB, none but citizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which was after- 
wards abolished ; 3. Jus Irihulorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned 
to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, 
eligibility to public offices, a right originally confined to patricians, but finally extended 
to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to religious 
worship. — Those who did not possess the rights of citizens [cives) were generally 
teimed foreigners {peregrini) wherever they resided. 

3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights ana privileges, which were 
allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The forms of 
government estabUshed in such cases may be divided into four. 

(1.) The Colonim or colonies were cities or tracts of country, wliich persons from Rome were 
sent to inhabit. These persons, althnuwh mingiiiia; with the conquered natives and occupants, 
gained the whole power in the administration of atfairs. In the later periods of the republic 
and under the emperors, many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served oiu their 
legal time (twenty years, in the foot, or ten in the horse, cf $ 277), and who after thus laboring 
for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their a^e in ease 
and plenty. — The colonies were scattered over the empire, and governed by laws prescribed to 
them by the Romans. 

Nielni.lir'v Rome (ed. Pliil. 1S35), vol. ii p. V2.—Froiitinuf, De Coloniis. — Essay in Madvidgii Opuscula (Hauniae, 1834), De 
Ture et Condiiione Coloniarum Pop. Romani. — Smith, Did. of Antiq. p. 256 

(2.) The Muvicipia were cities, which enjoyed the riuht of governing themselves by their own 
laws; retaining, if they chose it, such as were in use before Iheir subjection to the Romans. 
They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, and their inhabitants had 
the name and some of the rights of Roman citizens. Originally confined to Itaiy, they were 
subsequently formed even in the provinces. The coloniae and niuiiicipia had similar magis- 
trates; the Diiiimmri were the chief officers ; the senators were called Decuriones. 

Savigiiy. Gescliictite des R^m. Rechts.— Saui??i!/, Cebpr das Jus Italicum, in the ZtUscltrifl, &c. vol. v. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
p. 2o9. — Niebuhr, AS above cited, vol. ii. p. 37. 

(3.) The Prcp.ff'ctnrm were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for offences 
against the Roman government. They were not suffered to frame their own laws as did the 
municipia, nor to choose their own magistrates, as did both the mu!iici|)iH and the colonise. 

They were governed by a preft^ct sent annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, 

which were not ehher cnloniai, municipia, or prtsfecturce, WfVf called cirita/es fccdemtcB, enjoying 
their own rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only by confednracy or alliance. 
Ztcrnpt, Ueber den Un ersrhied der Benennungen Muuicipium, Colonia, Praefcclura. Berl li-40 8. 

(4 ) The PromncicR were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were 
remodeled as to their governments, at the pleasure f)f the Romans. They were compelled to 
pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent 
out from Rome The provinces were termed Prsetorian or Proconsular according as PraBtors or 
Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the emperors were governed by proprators • 
those beloiiiiing to the senate, by proconsuls (cf $ 250). These governors were often tyrranni- 
cal and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious features 
in the Roman administration. 

For i:lu3'rations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cictro's Orations aiainst Verres. — Middlcloit^s Life of Cicero, vol. i p. 94, as cilec 

*•. V. ^ 401 I. On the Roman provinces, cf. C. Sigoniiis, He anliqno Jure Provinciarum. Ven. 1568. 4. contained in Grxuiua 

vol. II. — Burigny. on Gov- of Rom. Provinces, in the Mem. Acad, fnscr. xxvii, 64. On the general subject of Roman ri^hfg 

fValter, Geschichtc des Romischen Hech\s.- Zimmern, cited P. V. ^ 511.— C, Siguniw, De Antique Jure Popiili Poniari Bob 
i^'i. til. &I60 in his C^era Omnia. Media. 1737. 6 vols, fol. 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 259 

§ 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and 
private cases, criminal and civil, 'l^he former involved the general peace and 
security; the latter, the claims and rig-hts of individuals. The public or crimi- 
nal trials {^judicia publica) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The lattei 
were such as belonged not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed liuie or place, 
but had a special day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- 
pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of 
commissioners in cases of this kind; such were the Duumviri perduelliunis or 
Quacsi/(>rel^. — The ordinary public trials were also called quoeslionea perpeiux. 
and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state 
offences. In these the Praetor presided (cf. § 243), by whom assistant judtres 
(judices assessorcs) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from 
the knights, and nt last from all conditions-. The judges were divided into 
several decurise, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot 
for each trial. Under the emperors, the judges were appointed by them. 

1 u. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of established usages 
were observed. The plaintiff (oc/or, accusator) commonly spoke against the deiendant 
[reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or 
in writing, and judgment was pronounced. 1 he person acquitted could, when he had 
ground (or it, bring his accuser to trial for slander {caluii.nin) ; the person condemned, 
on the other hand, was punished according to the law. 

2. Pubhc trials of a cop/VaZ kind were held before the Comifia Centuriata; such as 
involved only the question of some minor pimishnient, beibre the Comilia Tributa. 
In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he 
announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person of a certain crime ; doing 
this was expressed by the phrase dicere dinn; the person named must procure bonds- 
men {vades, prcedes) or be kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the ma- 
gistrate made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each after one day in- 
tervening ; then a hill (rogafio). including the charge and the punishment proposed, 
was posted up for three market-days; on the third majket-day. the accuser again 
repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (advocatus, pntronus) made a 
defence ; after which the Comitia was sumn.oned, for a certain day, to decide the trial 
then by suffrages. 

On the judicial affairs of the Romans, ttie fullest authority is C. Sigoniiis, de judiciis, in his Opera Omuia, cited ^ 260. vol. iii. ; 
also in 2d vol. of Grsvius cited § 197.— Cf. Beaufort, Ri publiqiie Romaine. 2d vol. — Duiilop. Rom Lit. vol. ii p. 141, as cited P. V. 
V299. 8, — ff. F Salm'm, De Judiciis et Pcenis Romanorum, in Salletip-r, vol. iii —IVdlttr, Geschichte des Rom. Rech's.— Gf)(I/!)i_?, 
Geschi'.hie der Rom. Staatsverfassung. — TigL-ntrom, Ue Judicibus apud Romanos. Beil. Ib26. "Valuable only for the eollectioi 
nf the original authorities." 

§ 202. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called pefifin; the 
plaintiff y?e///o/-, and the defendant, is unde pe/i/ur. The plaintiff could compel 
the other party to appear at court, not usually, however, without calling in some 
one as witness to the step {anttslatia^. If the defendant chose not to go, he 
must give security or bail (sotisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter 
or object of his complaint {causa)', if the defendant denied the thing charged, it 
led to a formal trial (actio). — There were two principal kinds of actions; viz. : 
acliones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of obligations ; and actiones 
in rem, which related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The 
proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vindicatio; of the former 
kind, condictio. All private trials belonged lo the jurisdiction of the Fraetur. 

1 u. 'I" he Praetor named the judges, who, \yhen the dispute was about the restitution 
of property, were called recuperulores. Often for this purpose a hundred or a hundred 
and five were appointed from the different tribes, called ctntinnvirule judicium. '1 he 
judges or jury, as well as the liiigatirg parties, were put under oath. '1 hen the action 
was carried forward orally, and afier examination, judgment. was pronounced, and 
provision made for its execution. It may be important to distinguish judges pro- 
perly so called from arbitrators (aft///-/ causarum), who made awards in i-ases which 
were not to be decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommo- 
dation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa fidei bona; et arbi- 
traricB. 

2 k. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Campu* 
Martius; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica 
(cf. P. I. ^ 61). 

§ 263. A mono- the principal penal offences, which demanded public trials 
were the following: Crimen majestatis, or an offence against the dignity and 



860 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Security 'f the state and its maoristrates ; perduelliomft, high treason against the 
freedom of the people; peculatus, embezzling in any way the public property, 
sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records; ambitus, bribery or cor- 
ruption of the people to procure votes in an election; repetundarum, extortion, 
when a Praetor, Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, 
for which compensation was demanded ; vis pub/f'cas, public violence, including 
conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — There were vari- 
ous more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials; e. g. 
crimen inter sicarios, assassination; crimen venejicii, poison; parricidii, parri- 
cide; falsi, forgery; adullerii and plagii, adultery and man-stealing. 

§ 264. The punishments (^pcsnse) inflicted on those found guilty were various. 
The following were the principal; damnum, mulcin, fines, whicli at first never 
exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were 
increased; viiicula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains upon 
the hands and feet; verbera, blows inflicted on the freeborn with the rods of 
the Lictnrs (w/ro-?'.s), upon slaves with whips (_^a_i;;e///'s) ; /a//o, satisfaction in 
kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye;infamia 
or ignominiu, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the person incapa- 
ble of enjoying public offices; exilium, banishment, which was either voluntary 
or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of all honors. When the 
person was banished to no particular place, he was said to heinlerdictus ,• when 
banished to a certain place, relegatus. The form termed depurtaiio was the 
most severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and 
desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; servitus, 
slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold; and mors, death, in- 
flicted for heinous crimes. 

1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties; as catenas,, chains ; hoixB, 
cords or thongs ; manicas,, manicles for the hands ; pediccE, fetters for the feet ; nervus, 
iron shackles for the neck ; colambar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in 
which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands. The confinement of crimi- 
nals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (of. Acts 
xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner being fastened by a chain to the left wrist 
of the keeper; the prisoner was sometimes chained to two soldiers. — I'he ancient 
state-prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamcrtine Prison, is still pointed out to 
travelers. 

In our Plate XXXI., fig. A, is a cut showing a kind of slocks now used in the East, in which 
the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands; it may serve to illustrate 
tile Ronian stocks above named.— Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut represeiitinff one of the 
stories of the Mamertine Prison. The structure is under a small edifice called the Church of St. 
Joseph; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called T'j/Z/JaKjntt, after Servius Tullius, who 
is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and 
defying the assaults of time; here Jagurtha was stoned to death ; and here, according to tra- 
dition, Pawi and Peter were imprisoned; the dungeon presents a most appalling appearance. 

Cr Eustace, Tour, &c. cited P. IV. § !90. !.— fisft, Travels, Sc p 300, as cited P. IV. § 186 6. 

2. The flagellum ifxim-iD was made of leathern thongs {lora) or twisted cords (funes) 
fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. 'I'he 
scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the ferula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hor. i. 
iii. 119. — The punishing of Roman citizens by the virga (paPSog) was prohibited by 
the Lex Porcia, many years before the time of Christ (cf. Acts xvi. 22). 

3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified {cruci 
f^ffi-S^^^) '■> others it was customary at first to hang {arhori suspendere), afterwards to 
behead {seciiri perciitere), or to strangle in prison (sfransulare), or to throw from the 
Tarpeian rock {de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast into the sea or a river (projicere in 
profluenfem). The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of • 
any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack 
(culeus, cf Dio7iys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a do.< 
and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals we 
not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased * e 
privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain stairs 
{scalcn) called gemonicB ox gemot lii gradus ; down which they were dragged with a 
hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popular violence or civil war 
were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy {Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other 
modes of capital punishment were also practiced, especially under the emperors; ad 
ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphithca- 
'.re (heslinrii), or with each other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders 
*'ere condemned to work in mines; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild 



P III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SYSTEM OF LAWS. 26 J 

beasi* '■o be devoared. These forms were often inflicted on those who cmbra'^ed and 
would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid, 
which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it -jii fire ; 
thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burnina 
Rome. 

§ 2H5. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefinite m the 
early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all 
cases according to their own judgment,' or according to usatre in similar 
instances. The abuses growing out of this state of things occasioned, accord- 
ing' to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to 
Athens and Sparta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They 
returned B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (cf § 248. 3) 
were appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 

1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then in 
tvtelve tables, and by the people m the Comiiia Centuriata were adopted ai^d esta- 
blished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. V. v^ 561). — To these 
were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their 
authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed them ; e. g. Lix Ali/iia, Lex 
Furia, &,c. ; also from their contents ; e. g. Liges agraricp.. frume7ifari(P, &c. 

2 II. It was necessary that every law proposed for enactment should be previously 
posted up in pubhc for seventeen days {per tnnundimim), and then be submitted to 
the decision of the people in the Comitia Centunafa, that they might adopt it (legem 
jnhere, accipere), or reject it {Ugem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished, 
they were said to abrogate it {ligem abrogare). Laws thus adopted were engraved on 
brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however.' their own ordi- 
nances had the force of laws, called ConslUutiones prhicipalea. and including not only 
their formal edicts {edictn). but answers to petitions (rescript a, or tpistolcs), judicial 
decisions {decretu), and commands to ollicers {niandata). 

3. Originally laws were enacted by the people in the Comiiia Curiafn ; such laws 
were termed in general Leges CiiriatcB. But afterwards the Comitia Curiata ieW 
almost into disuse, -and laws were enacted in the Comitia Cevlurintn, and thence were 
termed Leires CeiUuriatat. Enactments in the Comitia Tribula were termed Plebisci- 
ta (cf. § 259). Decrees of the Senate were called Se?iatus consullu (cf. §257). Under 
the early emperors, these decrees were often based on proposals made by the einpe- 
rors, called orationes principum, which were sometimes delivered orally, but generally 
were sent in written messages; in later limes the orationes seem to have been syno- 
nymous with the const it utiones. — The Roman law included the Leges, the Plebiscita, 
the Senntus consulta, and the Const itutiones Fri?icipales ; and aleo brsidr s these, the 
various edicts forming the Jus honorarium ; and likewise several early collections of 
laws and usages, viz. the Jus Papirianum. the Tabulae Duodecim, Jus Flaviaiium, 
and Jus ^lianum. of which some account is given under ihe history of Roman Lite- 
rature (cf P. V. § 561). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the sys- 
fem of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. '1 he emperor 
lustinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order (cf. P. V. *ji 5()y). 

Re-pectin; \Yit Oratitynes principum, cf. Dirl.sen, Ueberdie Rt-rieii der Rnm. Kai^e-, i.i he R'leinisch >f»!. fir Jurispr. — On 
the general juhjeci of 'tie Roman Law ?nd Jiiri>prudei.ce, we may refer to Heintccitts, Aiitiqui'atiini Roniauannn Jurisprudttitiam 
r !ustr:inili]ni Svutasma. Arzent. 17'5 S — Saviz7ty,'<ys'tni des lieuliien Ron.. Recli's — Brnikinatin, Ijisimii nt> Jurs Roii.an, 
—Hiuo, Lehrbuch der Gescliiclile des Rom. Rechts. Berl. 1S32. 8.— See also in this Manual, P. V. §5 55S-57I. 

^ 2C6 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular policy of the 
Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain- A general scarcity, as 
m the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned fhe appointment of a special offi- 
cer to atiend to the subject, called Prtrftcins Ajincna-, altli ugh the ^Isdilcs hud pre- 
viously been charged with this care, and il contimed af erwnrds to be a duty of their 
office (cf. § 244). Augustus ordained, that two men should Le annually elected to 
perform this duty, duumviri dividu^ido frumenio. 'fhe annu-il contnhu'ions in grain, 
which were exacted of the provinces, served likewise to [.reveiU the occurience of a 
scarcity of bread, and the provincial officers, especially ihc Qua slurs (cf § 24("), wero 
required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect. Egypt was the inos< 
uroductive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual voyage was 
made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined.. 
The disiribuiion of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Roin«; 
from the earliest times. 

§ 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (semrivnt), and after- 
wards to the iinperial exchequer {Jiscus), were the tn'lmla, taxes imposed oi. 
the citiztms according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute, 
and the vecligah'a, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were 
throe principal kinds or branches of the redigaliai ihe porlorium, d-Jties on ex- 



262 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, 

ports and imports, the person taking lease of which was called manceps portuum t 
decuma;, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the scrtp/ura, or pasture tax, 
jiaic' for feedintr cattle on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines, 
and on salt works, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were 
the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves {vice&ima^ a twentieth), en 
aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 

1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (Jocahantur sub hasta). Those who hired or 
farmed them were called publicani, the rent or hire paid being called puhfiaim ; they 
were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed property, and on taking the 
lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities {prcsdes). Leases of the reve- 
nues ot whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associ- 
ated {societas or corpus), who had in Rome a superintendent of the concern {magister 
socielatis piihiicanorum), with a subordinate one in each province or region (promagis- 
ter), and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. 

The publicans so often mentioned in the Neiv Testament were of the class nf subaltern cclleciors above described, who were 
guilty of preat extortion in all the provinces. Zacclitus, described by Luke(xix 2), as "chief among the publicans" (ap;\;i7-£Acuv?js), 
was probably ^ proma^ister. — Buuchard, Sur les Publicains, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxvii. 241. 

2. Salt-works (Kulivoi) are said to have been established first at Ostia, by Ancus Martius {Plin. 
Hist. Nat. xxxi 41). In later times they were iinniernus in Iialy, and in the prnvinces. Rock- 
salt {a\s.i opvKToi) was known to the ancietits ; salt was also gathered from springs atid lakes, 
whert! it was formed by a natural process; yet most of the salt used was iriade by artificial 
evaporation of sea-water. The salt-works were usually public (jroperty, and were let by the 
government to the highest bidder. Amons the most productive mines belonging to the Ro- 
mans, were the gold mines near Aquileia (Pohjb. xxxiv. 10) ; the gold mines of Ictimiili neai 
Vprcelii, in which 25,000 men are said to have been employed (P/irt. H. Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and the 
silver mines of Spain near Carthago Nova. In Dacia were gold mines and silver mines belong- 
ing to the Romans. Macedonia, Illyricum, Thrace, also Sardinia, and Africa, contained mines 
from which the Romans derived an income. Those in Dacia are said to have yielded in the time 
of Nero fifty pounds of gold daily. 

On the mines of Dacia, cf. Loud. Quart. Rev. Oct. 1841, p. 10.— On those of Spain, Roliin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. York, 
1S35.— On the ancient mines generally, B. Caiyophilus, De antiquis Auri, Argenti, Stanni, .liris, Ferri, Plumbique Fodinis. Vienn. 
1757. 4. 

3. Besides the taxes above named, we may mention under the Vertig-alia, the following: a 
tax on the value of things sold (centesima reram venalium) ; a tax on liberti living in Italy (called 
ociavm) ; a lax on the doors of houses (nstiarium). sometimes on the pillars (culumnarium) ; a 
tax on bachelors (uxorium), first imposed A. D. 403. 

4. After the conquest of Macedonia, the revenue from the provinces became so great that the 
tributa previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. They were renewed again by 
Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caracalla bi-stowed the name and privilege of Ro- 
man citizens on all free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these 
taxes ; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects. 

5. Respecting the amoiuit of income to the Roman treasury at different periods not much is 
known (cf Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 17). The annual revenue is said to have been fifty millions 
of drachms bpfi)re the time of Pompey, and to have been by him increased ti' eighty-five mil- 
lions {Pint. Pomp. 45). In later times vast sums must have been required to meet the various 
expenses of the civil government, the army, the navy, the public buildings, the aqueducts, the 
great roads, and other works. — It does not appear that regular annual salaries were given to 
public officers until the lime of Augus^tus ; but afterwards they were common. Alexander Se- 
verus is said to have established a salary {salariam) for riietoricians, grammarians, physicians, 
haruspices, mathematicians, mechanicians, and architects. The term salarium was derived 
from i-al : salt being one of the things essential in supporting human life. 

D. H. hegewisch, Hislor. Versuch ilber die Romischen Finanzen. Altona, 1804. S.—R. Susse, Grundzlge des Finanzwesens im 
Rom. Slaaie. Braunschweig, 1803-4. 2 Bde 8 — Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii.—P. .Bu)wa7m, Vectigalia Populi Roniani. 
Leid. 1734. 4. 

§ 268*. In connection with the Civil Affairs of Rome, we inay speak of the 
principal employments and regular pursuits which were publicly authorized or 
sanctioned. 

1. Under the heads of Teacher, Priest, Lawyer, and Physician, may be included 
whatever among the Romans corresponded to the j^arned professions of modern tinies. 
—Respecting the business of instruction, conducted by grammarians, rhetoricians, 
and philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other parts of this work (cf. P. 
IV. '^^ 123 — 128. P. V.*^v>407 — 412,416—422,446 — 455).— The established system of 
idolatry required a large number of priests of different grades ; a sufficient account has 
been given in former sections of their business (cf *^^ 207 — 219) and emoluments 

;^ 219 b).- The employment of the lawyer was highly honorable and profitable. 

The jurisconsult or the pleader, who could distinguish himself by his knowledge of 
lawor his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure to obtain honor and wealth; 
although exposed, of course, th^ orator especially, to suffer in the violence of party 
revolutions (cf P. V. §*^ 390—406,558 — 571). — The profession of medicine, at first not 
much encouraged, had great patronasre from the time of Augustus (cf P. V. <5'§ 543 — 
552). Some statements of Pliny {iJisf. Nat. xxix. 5) show that the employment was 
verv lucrative; a ohysician, named Quintus Stertinius, received from the emperor 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 203 

500,000 sesterces per annum, yet represented himself as making a sacrifice thereby, 
as he could have obtained 600.000 by private practice. 

We may here reruark thai a number of iurgical iiistrtiments were found in ISI9, in a house in Pompeii ; among them were the 
probe (specillum, /I'^Xrj), the cau'er)' (fcavTijpiov). the forceps (tniwdjaj, the catr.eter (KatftT'^p. sc'ua fistula), differeiil sorts ot 
knives, &c — An account of them is given in KUhn, in the Opuscula Academ. Med. et Philolog. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. ' 

2 11. Ahhough commerce could not flourish m.uch at Rome in early times, when the 
spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of mer- 
chants, who were Roman citizens. 1 he Rornan commerce was also extended, on the 
expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits 
were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and 
through agents not unfrequently engaged in them and indulged in speculations. J hey 
did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. The 
merchants at Rome were styled mercalorcs ; those abroad in the provinces, negofia- 
tores. There were also brokers and bankers (org-f^i/rtr/i and meiisarii), and conlract- 
orsof various kinds, besides the publican limennov.ed in the preceding section), whose 
contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transactions. Yet Rome never 
acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in point of commerce. 

Tlie argentarii were ordinary brokers ; ihey were divided into corporations {societales, corpora). 
The vievscrii were public bankers, appointed by the state, who loaned money from the public 
treasury to such as could give security for it. Both classes had their otiices in the buildings by 
the forum. 

On Commerce, &c. amon? the Roman?, Gihbon, Fall of Rom Emp. ch. ii. — The Hist, of Rnm. Emp. (given in Lardner's Cab* 
Cyclopredia) bk iii ch. 9. — Dt Past/jret, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaine-. kc . in the Mem. de i^Ii.sl'tut, C 1 asse d^Uilt, 
el Lit. Anc. vol. iii. p. 2?5 ; vol. v. p. 76 ; and vii. p. \2b.—Eniesti, t)e negotiatoribus Rom. I.ips. 1772. 8. 

3 71.. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and arti- 
sans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometime.-^ acquired Roman ciiizenship. 
Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia). 
which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. Of this kind were the 
coWegm fahrorum, tigiiariortim, dendrophororum, sagariorvm, lahnloriorvni, &c. The 
overseer of such a body was called prcpftctus ; they had also thtir decurio?tes and ma- 
gistri, whose office was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, 
or for individual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. 

Respecting these corporations, see G. PanciroUus, De corporibus Ailificuni, in 2d vol. of Grxvius, cited § 137. 

4. Among the various arts and trades pursued, the following should be here noticed 
more particularly. 

(a) The making of glass (vifum, va\os). — It has been a question of some interest how far the 
ancients understood the making of ^Zass. Pliny (Hist Nat. v 19. x.x.wi. 26) states that the art 
originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass vessels were first made in 
Pidon. Tt was known, however, in Egypt, for pieces of blue glass have been found in the tombs at 
Thebes, and si'me of the nuimmies are decorated with glass. Lachrymatories and palersB of 
glass have been disco vernd in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. J "166. 1). The allusions 
and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Firo-. yEn. vii ".50. //^or. Od. i .xvii. 20. Sat ii iii. 222) 
indicate an acquaintance with glass (vitrea) in a state of at least considerable perfection. Colored 
glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf P. IV. J 220. 2) in the time of Augustus. 
Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. IV. $ 210). The story related by 
Tacitus (./?7)n. v. 42) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredil)le, showa 
that glass-making had been introduced at Ron^e. Numerous vessels of glass, and even panes 
of glass in a window, h:<ve bnen found at Pompeii (cf. $ .S25). The celebrated Portland Vase has 
lately been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. IV. $ 173); this was found in the tomb of Alexander 
Severi's. in whose reign a special ta.v was laid. A. D. 220, upon the glass-makers of Rome, who 
vere then so numerous, it is said, as to require the assignment of a particular quarter of the city 
for the place of their labors. 

See IVilkiusmi, Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. SS, as cited P I % Xtl.—Boudet, Sur I'Art de la Verrerie, &c in the Descriplmn dt 
VEsypre vol. ix. p. 2\3.—BtIzimi, cited P. IV. 5 231. \.~Mazois. Ruines de Pompei. Par. 1S30. 

(&■) The making of earthenware (fctile, Kepdfiiov. uaTpdicivnv)'nr the art of pottery C/jr.s/o-Zi- 
na).— This was early known among the Jews {./erem. xviii. 3.4). The vessels found at VolatcrrJB 
and other places (rf. P. IV. $ 173. 3) prove its existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks in 
Italy. There can be no doubt it was early intro'duced among the Romans. The wheel (rpox^'S, 
roia jio-ularis) of the potter {figuh.s. Kcnai>evi) is a subject of allusion in Plautus {Epid. iii. 2. 35). 
Molds^(rt57ro(, /or?/iff') were used to decorate the.vp-ssels with figures in bas-relief (cf. P. IV. 
$J 158, 188) and f.'r forming the images on the architectural appendages railed mitfjijii made of 
terra coita (cf. P. IV. J(J 239, 241) ; some specimens of tln^se molds Ii.ivh l>een foinid near Rome. 
According to Vitriivius the Romans made their water-pipes "f potter's clay. They established 
potteries in England; v< stiges of which, it is said, are still discernible in some parts of the 
island, especially in SlafTordshire. If their rasa vnirrhina were [X'rcelain (cf P. IV. $ 195. 4"i 
the art nuist have reached a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that theso 
vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from the earth in the eastern part of Asia.— Th»* 
manufacture of bricks {lateres cocliles) was well understood. Rricks are found in very aiu ien» 
Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. 

Lardner's Cab. ryclnpap.dia, the vol on Porcelain and G'.t^.— .S. Pnrkei. Chemical Essiys, &c. Lond. IS30. p. 304, 346. — - 
Notices of Roman earthen vessels are found in !V. Sherry, Description of the discoveries at Heraclea, translated, &r. I.ond. 1750. 8. 
.— Cf. Sercnix d''Agincottrl, Rerueil de Fra»mens. 

(c) The baking of bread (panifcium, ars pistoria) .—The bakers (pi.store.«) at Rome formed. I k^ 
peiscns of other trades, a collegium. No one had made baking a trade U is said. uni»l B V 



204 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

173. Ill a bakehnnsR (pistriniiiii, or pist.rilla) dl'^cnverad .it Pompeii, were found several loaves 
f>f breail apparently haked in ino\'is {attopicc); tiiey were flat and about eiglit inches in diaiiie- 
ter. Before the invention of tiie mill {iikiUi) , corn was pounded in a sort of mortar (mortartnm) 
CAWed pisliim ; wtience the name pi-it ur, 'din\ pistrinum. Two varieties uf the hand-mill {moLa 
inaniLariii) were found in the ruins of a bakehouse at Pompeii ; grinding willi this was done by 
slaves, chi(^fly females. The "cattle-mill" (iiiulu asinaria, pvXo^ ofiKOi, cf Mat.tk. xviii. 6) was 
also used ; likewise the waier-niill {/Ho/a aquaria, vSpuXerrn), having above the stones a hopper 
(itifundihiilum) from which the corn fell down between ihem. In the later periods there appear 
to iiave been public mills turned liy the water of the aqueducts. When Rome was besiej^ed by 
the Goih.s, A. D. 536, and the aqueducts were intercepted, Belisarius is said to have constructed 
(loating mills upon the Tiber. 

Cf. Ftiri'vius, X. t>.—Ausonius, Poem. iii. iO.—Prccopivs, De Bello Gothico, i. 15 (cf. P. V. § 2!yl).—Mongez, Sur les nieules dc 
innulin, &c. as cited § 59.— F. L. Gottzius, De Molis et Pistrinis Vt-teruiii, and C. L. Huheisel, De Molis Manualibus, &c , in Ugoli- 
71US, vol. xxix as cited § 197. 1. 

(</) The business of the fuller (///Wo, yj^a^siJs), the dresser of cloth and washer of clothes. — 
The fullers, like the bakers and other tradesmen, formed a collegium. A fuller's establishment 
was termed fullonica or fullnnhivi ; the mode of performing the work was sometimes a subject 
of attention from the censors (cf. Pliny, Hist. N. xxxv. 5). On the walls of a fullonica at Pom- 
peii were found paintings which serve to explain the way in which dresses were cleansed. It 
would seem that the Romans in the cities sent their clothes to the fuller, instead of having them 
washed at home. 

The paintings above nientione I are given in the Museo Borbon en, cited P. IV. § 212. vol. iv — Some of them in Gell, Pompeiana, 
vol. ii. as cited P. IV. § 243. 2; also in Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 432. — Cf. Fhottgoi, Aniiquitates Tritura et Fuiloiiiae. Traj. ad 
Rhen. 1727. 

(e) The art of dyeinir (ars tinctoria, tinctura). — This seems to have been a subject of special 
regard in the time of the empire Establishments for dyeing were supported in various places ; 
at Tarentutn, e. g. celebrated for its woolen manufactures, there was an imperial dye-house 
{hnphium, fia(p£iov); these establishments were under a superintendent (baphiis prccpusiiits) . The 
whole work of making the cloth appears to have been performed in them, both the spinning 
(lavificiiim) and the business of weaving (textrtna). A dye much used was the purple obtained 
frimi the shell of the Murex. Dyers from various places resorted to Phoenicia to improve 
themselves in the art. 

See AnuWwii, Sur la tein'ure des Ancient, in the Mem. dt VInslilut, C I asse de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 549; vol. iii. 
p. 357.— Cf. notice of the color of the toga, § 332. 2. 

§ 269 a. Agriculture was in much higher estimation than commerce or any of the 
trades; and the fields of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war, 
were chiefly possessed by respectable Roman citizens. Many noble Romans lived 
upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and improvement of them a special 
study. The ornamenting of their estates proved, in the flourishing periods of the 
state, an important part of Roman luxury. 

1. The grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of various kinds; triticum was a 
common name ; fur is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum, 
and oars, aye?w, were als6 raised. Flax, Uuum, was an article cultivated considerably. 
Meadows, prata, were cultivated for mowing; they seem to have yielded two crops 

of hay, /ce?iMm. The breeding of cattle was an object of attention usually included 

under husbandry; chiefly, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats. Much care was al.'^o be- 
stowed on bees {apes). Trees, also, bo h forest, fruit and ornamental, received their 
share of attention. The Roriians were acquainted with most of the various methods 
now practiced for propagating the different species and varieties.— :But the culture of 
the vine finally took the precedence of all other cultivation (cf. § 331 b). 

Respecting the attention paid by the Romans [o agriculture as a science, and the care taken 
in defining the boundaries of lands by means of professional surveyors {agriviensores), see P. V. 
} 483— 489. cf. P. II. $91. 1. 

2. Among the agricultural instruments the plow, aratrum, ranks first; its chief 
parts were the tevio, beam, to which the jugtim or yoke for the oxen was attached: 
stiva, plow-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (jnanir.uln) of which the 
plowman took hold to direct the instrument ; hurts, a crooked piece of wood between 
the beam and plowshare ; denlale or dens, the piece of timber which was joined to 
the huris and received on its end the shnre ; vomer, the share; aures, affixed to the 
huris, nnd answering to mold-hoards to throw the earth back ; ciiUer, the colter. The 
rail an was a s'lfP used for cloaning the plow, or beating off" clods from it. In some 
plows wheels were attached; but the plow most commonly used was more simple, 

having neither colter nor mold-boards. Other instruments were the ligo, spade ; ha- 

tillus. shovel ; rasirMm, rake ; sarcuhun, hoe or weeding-hook ; hidens, a sort of hoe, 
wiih two hooked iron 'ech ; occa and irppx, different kinds of harrows ; marra, a mat- 
tock or hoe for cutting out weeds; dolahra, a sort of adz; securis, ax; falx, pruning- 

knife ; fiilx messorin and /(7/c«?a, sickle. The implements for beating out grain 

were the perficce, a sort of" flails; traha, a sort of sledge; trihula, a board or beam, 
set- with stones or pieces of iron, vt'ith a great weight laid upon it, and drawn by yoked 
ciittk. These were all used upon the threshing-floor, area, which was a round space, 
filevated in the center; sohietimes paved with sione, but commonly laid with clay 
carefully smoothed and hardened. Sometimes the threshing was done by merely 
'irivin.T oxen or hqrses over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and 



PLATE XXXI I. 




266 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

In Plate XXX7I., fig. ii. exhibits the Roman plow ; T is Die temo ; B, the sfwa ; A, polntg ia 
»he aures on the buris ; D, to the de;iiale ; V, is the iwiuer ; C, the cnlter. In fig. iii. are seen 
foinis (>f the Syrian plow, cf. $ 172. 3. — On the Konmn plow, cf. Dickson, as ciled P. V, $489. 3. 

Pig. 8, in Plate XXXII. is a cni showing varieties of ihe fulx, priining-knit'e, and sickle. 

Fig. 5 is from an Egyptinn monument, and shows the use of the sickle in cutting wheat in the 

field. Pig. 7 i§ a I'ersian dra^r, for the purpose of threshing grain; a roller wilh teeth, fitted 

Ro as to he drawn by cattle over the grain ; it is taken from Sir R. K. Porter.— Fig. iv. is another 
instrument for thi' same purpose, tHken from JV"ifJ!/?//;r ,• il has three wheels with iron teeth, or 
wilh serrated edges, drawn by rattle, the driver silting on it. These figures may partially illus- 
trate the Roman tralin and tribulu. Pontedera, Antiquitatnm Rusticarum, &.c. Paiav.1738. 

3. The carriages used for agricultural purposes were chiefly the plaustra or ve/iat, 
which had usually two wheels, sometimes four, and were drawn commonly by oxen, 
but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without spokes, called tym 
pana. 'J he body of these carriages (and indeed ot any. carriage) was termed capsum, 
and the draught-tree or beam, teino. The jugum was the yoke, fastened to the beam 
and also to the cattle by thongs, lora suhjitgia — 'Ihe sarractim was a cart or wagon 
used in conveying wood, and the various products of the farm. — Pack-horses {cabnlli) 
were sometimes used for carrying burdens; more frequently asses or mules; called 
difelJarii, from the packages {clUeUce) on their backs. 

We may remark in this connection, that the Roinans had various carriages for con- 
venience and amusement. — The chariot, currus, was the most common ; always wilh 
two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses. Those with two were 
termed bigcB ; those with four, quadrigm ; in the races, the horses were always yoked 
abreast. — The carruca was a sort of private coach of the rich, sometimes of solid sil- 
ver, curiously carved. — The pilentum, was an easy soft vehicle with four wheels, 
used in conveying women to public games and rites. The carpe^it urn was a carriage 
with two wheels and an arched covering. The Iheiisa was a splendid carriage with 
four wheels and four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the pul- 
vinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games (§233). The cisium was a vehicle 
with two wheels, drawn by three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a 
larger traveling carriage wilh four wheels.. — The horses were guided and stimulated 
by the bit {frmnum) and reins (liahence) and whip {flagellum). Bells {tintinnahula) 
were sometimes attached to the necks of the chariot- horses in a string similar to those 
now used. 

Fig. f). in onr Plate XXXT. is an ancient higa, preserved in the Vatican at Rome; it is covered 
with leather. Fig. 5 shows a Iriga. Fig. 4 is a qvadri<ra, which very nearly corresponds to a 
representation on a medallion (nunivius moduli wajitni) belonging to the Royal Cabinet at Paris, 
on which Augustus appears holding a standard wilh the eagle at its lop, and driving four horses. 
Cf Monffnvcon, Sup. vol. i. p. 64. 

Conveyance was also made on horseback, in which case the spur (ailenr, Ki.vT.pov, cf. Virg. 
XLn .xi. 714) was the stimulus. Saddles of some kind (ephipida, £(j)imnov) were used; sometimes 
perhaps merely of cloth {vesiis sirag-uln) ; yet sometimes consistinsr, as is novy, supposed to be 
shown by some monuments', of a wooden frame, stutfed and covered with a soft material, and 
fastened by a girth (civeylum, zova). Stirrups istnpicc) weVe also knovvn^. in hiter times at least. 
— It has been questioned whether the ancients used to sh< t their horses Hut the allusions of the 
classical writers seem to indicate clearly the fact that they dids, although, in the remains of 
ancient art the shoe is scarcely found, if ever, in the representations of the liorse. Some have 
Btipposed that a plate of metal vvas attached to the hoof, not by nails, but by some other means. 

• See Ginzrol. Uetier VVa.en ("a valu.ible waik nn the liistory of Carriages"). 2 Cf. Jrchiculogia, vol. viii. p. Ill as cited 

P. IV. § 32. 5. 3 Archxnlogia, vol. iii p. 35 — See the pa-sa»e from Johnson, given in § 329. 3. Respecting bridles, hits, &o. 

tf. B Clark, Chalinography. Lend. I?35. On the vehicles of the ancients, Scheffer, [)e Re Vehicul. 

§ 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important respectino- 
the weiorhts and circulatinof coins of the Romans. 

1. The principal Roman weight was the libra or pound. This was divided like the 
OS, info twelve ounces; and the parts bore the satne names wilh those o\ the as, men- 
tioned below. Various weights, both parts and multiples of the pound, were used in 
transacting business. They were often made of a black stone which some have 
called Li/dit/s lapis. Scales (librcs) and steelyards [Irutince), like the modern, were 
employed in weighing. 

Various specimens of Roman weights are given by Movifatir.ov, vol iii p. Kit, as cited l.S. 
Some are rectangular solids; but most of them are in a degree spherical. — Fig. 7, in our Plate 
XXXT. is a steelyard found at T'ompeii ; the original has an inscription, bearing a date which cor- 
responds to A. 1). 77, and asserting thai the instrument had been legally tested and proved in the 
Capiiol. — Fig. 8 is the movable weight belonging lo another steelyard found at the same place 
—Roman steelyards and weights have been found also in England. Ci. .MrchcEologia, c'MitA V. IV. 
5 32, 5. vol. ix. p. 131. 

2 11. Servius 7'ullius was the first who caused money to be coined (cf. P. IV. ^ 134), 
by stamping on brass the image of cattle {pecndes whence the term pecunia). Pre- 
viously, exchanges were made by barter, or by means of uncoined metal. The most 
common brass coin, the o.<r, was originally a Roman pound in weight and was divided 
like thai into twelve ounces {uiicicB). Two uncicB made a sextans ; three, a quadrans ; 
foui, a trims ; five, a quvicunx ; six, a semis ; seven, septunx ; eight, bes {his lri(ns)\ 
Mine, d'^drans ; ten, decunx ; and eleven, deimx. Afterwards the as was graduall> 



p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. 267 

reduced {PUn. H, N. xxxiii. 3) to an ounce in quantity, and finally evtni to a half- 
ounce. Silver coin was first stamped B. C. 269; the most common coins were the 
Denarius, Qui?tarius, and Sestertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as 
equal to ten pounds of brass, and marked X, or ^, but after the reduction of. the as 
to an ounce, B. C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. 1'he proper value of it 
also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half the Denarius, and marked 
V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2^ 
asses (hence its name semis tertius), and marl^ed LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbre- 
viated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sestertius passed 
for four asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummiis. — Gold coin was first stamped 
at Rome B. C. 207; the most common coin was the Aureus or Solidus, tqual in 
weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in value to twenty-five Denarii. 

/. IVard, De Asse et Pariibus ejus. Lond. 1719. 8. — Cardwell, Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Romans. 

3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where their mo- 
ney was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally to the image, or 
stamp, impressed on the coin and remi7iding one of the person or thing represented. 
The mint was under the care of the Triumviri mouetales ; the coins were examined 
by the Nummularii. The impression on the As or Assipondium was a Janus bifrons 
on one side and on the reverse the rostrum of a ship; on the Semis and Quadrans 
(called also Sembella and Teruncius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver 
coins Deiiarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two 
or four horses, and on the other the head of Rom.a with a helmet ; but oiher devices 
were sometimes impressed (cf P. IV. ^ 139. 2). — The value of the Denarius was 
about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments of Ze^ro?«7it;, who carefully weighed 
1350 co7iS2dar denarii; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore 
about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the repubhc was about 
10 to 1; 

. E. Brerewood. De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum Lond. 1614. 4. — Mongez, sur Tart dn Monnoyage chez les ancieni 
at chez les moderns, &c. in the Mem. de I'lnstitut, C 1 ass e d^Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. rx. p. 18". — Cu?iger, Bockh, as cited § 174.— 
Hussey, as cited § 274. 2. 

4. The usual rate of interest {fuenus) was one as for the use of a hundred a month, 
or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was called usura 
^f-ntesima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the capital {caput or sors). 
Horace speaks (Sat. i. iii. 12) of a usurer, who took 60 per cent. For money invested . 
in property exposed at sea {faenus nauticum) the lender might demand any interest he 
liked while the vessel was out ; but after she reached harbor, only the usual rate of 
12 per cent. — When a person, borrowing money, pledged himself and property in the 
form of a sale, he was said to be nexus ; a person failing to discharge his debt within 
the legal term was by the law consigned to the creditor, and was then said to be 
addictus. 

See Niebuhr, Hist, of Home, ed. Phil. 1835. vol. 1. p. Ayi.—Hudtwalker, De fceo nautico Rom. Haml. 1810. 4. 

^ 271 u. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 1000 
Sestertii they called Sesterlium ; duo Seslertia, e. g. signifies the same as bis milie 
sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they used the word^'e.s- 
tertium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral adverb to the first number, 
ien, twenty, &c., and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind ; e. g. Decies 
h'tiferfiiim signified 10,00,000 S est ertii ; Quadragies Sesterlium signified 40.00,000, 
or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned by talenls, in ca^e ot large sums. 
The tali'jitum was equal to 60 JihriB or pounds. 

1.. Kennet gives the following: rule for interpretin? tiie Latin expressions for stuns of money : 
if a numeral a<jree, in case, niirnber, and irendpr, witii .'^^esterfiiis, tlipn it denotes nrerisely and 
simply so many sesterces ; if a numeral of another case be joinedwilh the genitive plural, Sra- 
teriium, it denotes so many thousand sesterces ; if a numeral adverb be joined to the same, or be 
used alone, it denotes so many liuiulred thousand sesterces. 

We have on record s"i!ie stntpmetns, from whiTli vve may form a notion of the Roman wealth 
and lii.xnry. Crassns. for instance, is said to have possessed lands to the value oi bis witlies, i.e. 
by the above riilp. 2000X100 000=200.000.000 spsterces.; takins the value of the sesterce obtained 
as mentioiipd in the precedinir section, we have 3 8X 200,000,000-:-1000=S'7,600,000, for the value 
of the land owned by Crassi!« ; he is said to have had, in slaves, bnildijtgs, furniture, and money, 
as much more.— CaliL'iilH laid out upon a single supper, cf/i^/cN, i.e. 100 X l^O'^OO sestprces = 
3.8 X 10,000,000-:-1000=:.$'380.(iOO.— Cipopatra is s'aid to have swallowed, at a f^ast with Antony, 
a pearl worth the same sum, centies HS.— Cicero is said to have had a table which cost centum 
sesterti&m, I e. lOOX 1.000 sPsterces=.S3800. 

Cf. Mam, Rom. Ant. (ed. Boyd) Edinb. 1834. p. 432.— Perhaps these sunjs would be much larger, if due allowance were iiiadd 
for the depreciilion in the vslue of the pn clous me'als. Cf. Say's Polil Economy, hk. i. ch. xx\. sect. 7. 

2 In the Roman system of notation, seven letters of the alphabet were employed for e.xpress- 
ing numbers ; viz. I for 1, V for 5, X for 10. L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead 
of D, they sometimes used IC tosicnifv 500; and instead of M, they also n>ed X or CIC. orOC, 
to signify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn oyer a letter indicated that it was to be nniliiplied by 
1000; e. g. X stood for 10,000; IT, 50,000; "c, 100,000.— Combinations of these letters usually sii!- 
nified the .sMw of the numbers represented by the several letters seinrately ; e.g. VIII, 8; .XV. If>. 



fi68 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

I X, 60; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X was placed before a letter representing a larger number, 
the combination expressed ihe difference ; e.g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when to IC anothei 
C was annexed, it indicated a inultiplication by 10; e g. IC, 500 ; ICC, 5000; K'CC, 50,000: in 
order to signify liie same muiliplication of CIC, a (J was also prefixed as well as O annexed 
e.g. CIO, lOOO",- CCIOO, 10,000; CCCIOOO, 100,000. For any multiple, however, of this last, 
100.000, the Romans did not employ letters : but prefixed to tliis expression a numeral adverb ; 
ae bis, to signify 200,000; ter, to signify 300,000; decies, to signify 10,00,000, &c. 

^ 272. Tt may be in place to speak here of the modes of acquiring or transferring pro 
perty {res privatcE), or methods of gaining the ownership {dominium). '1 he following 
may be named ; 1. Mancipatio, when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the 
transfer was attended with certain formahties used among Roman citizens only ; 2. Cessio 
VI jure, when a person transferred his efiects to another before the Prsetor, or ruler of 
a province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; the cessio extra jus was when an 
insolvent debtor gave up his property to his creditors ; 3. Usucapio, when one obtained a 
thing by having had it in possession and use {iisii-s auctoritate) ; 4. Emplio sub corona, 
the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, with garlands 
{corona) on their heads ; 5. Auctio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudicatio, which referred 
strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co-heirsor dividing stock among partners, 
or settling boundaries between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of pro- 
perty by sentence of a judge or arbiter; 7. Donatio, when any thing was given to one 
for a present; 8. Hcereditas, when property was received by inheritance; and this wag 
either by bequest, from a testator, who could name his heirs in a written will {teslamento) 
or in a declaration {viva voca) before witnesses ; or by law, which assigned the property of ope 
dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest relatives on the father's side. 

^ 273 u. The public sale of property {auctio, also called proscriptio) was very common 
among the Romans. In the place were such sale was held, a spear was set up, whence 
the phrase sub hasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be 
sold {tabula proscriptionis, tabula auctionaria) was previously suspended upon a pillar in 
soine public place. Permission for such sales must be obtained of the city Praetor. I'he 
superintendent of the sales was termed magister auctionum: in cases where the sale 
was to meet the demands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, atid was generally 
the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of confiscated goods 
was termed sectio; the money arising therefrom went to the public treasury. 

Various distinctions were made of things constituting property. One, of early origin, and con- 
sidered important, was into Res Mancipi and Res JsTec Mancipij the Mavcijii were all 
snrh as could be transferred by the form called Mavcipatio ; the JVec Jknncipi were such as could 
not be thus transferred. Under the Res Mavcipi were included fnrws within Italy (prcedia riisfir.a, 
also urbava), and in any place which had obtained the/»/s Italicum ; also slaveu f and qvadrvpeds 
which were trained to work with back or neck; pearls {niurgantce); and country prffdial servi- 
tudes (or servitutes ■prcrdinmw rusticornw) . By a prisdial servitude was meant a right of making 
a particular use of the land of another, as the riyht ofgoing through it on foot {servitus itiveris); 
of driving a beast (acii/s); of driving a loaded carriage {via); of conducting wal&r {uquceductzis), 
making lime {calcis cnquevdce), &c. 

On Ihe suliject of [irnperty among Itie Rnnians, see Uvterholzen, Ueber die verschiedenen Arteti des Eigenlhiims, &c. io Ihe Rhem 
Mus—Dirksen, Ueher die ges^lzlichen Beschrlnkungen des Eigenthuii s, in Ihe Zeitschrift, vol. ii. — Bynhershoek, Opusculum de 
Uebus Mancipi el Nee Mancipi. — Savigny, Das RechI der Besilzes. — Smith, DiCI. of Antiq. under Dumiuium, Maiicipalio, Prx- 
diuni, Servitus, &c. On Ihe form in auctions, J. Rabirius, De Hastaruni et Auctionun) Origine, in Grsevius, vol. iii. 

^ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity should be explained here. 

1 u The measures of length and surface were the following.; digitus, a finger's 
breath; four of which made a palmus, or handbreadth; and sixteen, a pes or loot; 
5 feet were equal to a passns or pace; 125 of the latter formed a stadium, and 1 ,000 of 
them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. — In land-measures, the following were the most commo'a 
denominations ; jugerum, what could be plowed in a day by one yoke {jugo) of cattle, 
240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,?00 square feet; actus quadratus, equal to 
half the jugerum, being 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an 
eighth ot the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet. 

The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 4 of 
which made a cyulhus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulum was the half of a qiiartarius, 
which was the half of a hemina; and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly equal to our 
pint. For dry things there was also the jSIodius, equal to 16 sexiarii. In liquids the 
sextarius was a sixth of the congius; 4 congii made an urna; two urnae, an amphora; 
and 20 amphorse, a culeus. 

For a fuller view of the subject, the Tables presented in Plate XXXII a. may be constiUed. 

2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of \he Roman foot, which in 
important in le;irning the values of the several tneasiires of length, extent, and capacity. 1. One 
means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these pre- 
served in the (;api'oline Mu=«nm. 2. .Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot 
'Hies were bars of brass or iron of'lhe length of a pes, designed ff)r use in adiial measurements. 
3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances between the 
milestones on the Appian Wa"y. 4. Attempts have been made to ascertain the Roman foot 
likewise from the cuniriiis, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at 
Kome, the other at Paris ; the solid contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of 
'lalf a jtes From the same measure, it may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts 



PLATE XXXII a. 



ROMAN 

MONEYS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

The value in our denominations is given from 
Conner's Tables. 



Measures of Surface. 

1. Below the F'ersus. j 



Pes QuadratU3 



i 100 


Decempeda Quadralus • . . 


1 400 


4 1 Sextula 


I 480 


4 8 1 1.2 1 Actus Simplex 


600 
2400 


6 1 1.3 1 1.25 1 Siciliquus 
24 1 6 1 5 1 4 1 Uncia 


3600 


36 1 9 1 7.5 1 6 1 1.5 1 Clima 


lOOOU 


100 1 25 |20.S3| 16.6 1 4.16 | 2.7 | 



Poles. 




■ 12 
Versus 34 



tq.ft. 
Ou.9^ 

94.23 
104 69 
ISO.Ofe 
2>.9 
83.6 
125.4S 
167.05 



2. Above the Versus. 



! Versus ....•• 

ll 1.44 I Actus Quadratus . . • • 

!| 2.88 I 2 I Jugerum (As) 
1-5.76 j 4 I 2 I Heredlum • , • 
100 I Cenluria - 

I Siltus - 



I 576 1 400 
'2304 1 1600 



200 



ROO 400 



Acres, r. poles, sq.ft 

34 167.05 

• I 9 2296' 

• 2 19 1S7.09 

1 39 101.83 
. 124 2 17 109.79 

49S 1 29 166.91 



Subdivisions of the Jugerum and the Libra. 

The Uncia is a 12lh p>rt of the Lil/ra and also of the Jugerum; 
and ten interveiiins divisions have the same name. 



UiiCix 
2 Sextins 

3. Quadrans 

4. Trien3 



5. Quincunx 

6. Semis 

7 Sep'unx 



Uncix 

8. Bes 

9. Uodrans 
10. Dcxirans 



Uncix 

11. Ueuux 

12. Jugerum, 
and L'l/ra 



Muiieys. 



Teruncius - 



2 


Senibella - 


4 


„ 1 Assipondium ? 
'^ 1 As, Libella J * 


8, 


4 2 Dupondius 


10 


5 j 2.5 1.25 Sestertius • 


20 


10 1 5 1 2.5 1 2 1 ^"'"^nu. 
1 1 1 1 Victonalu 


40 


20 1 10 1 5 4 1 2 1 Den 



Dolls, ctt. m. 

00 3.87 

• • 7.74 

• I 5 48 

• 3 0.96 

• 3 S.68 
. 7 7.38 



1000 500 I 250 I 125 I 100 ( 50 I 25 I ;^"'7'^^''^ 3 86 8.46 
I I I I I I I Soliuus ) 



VVeishts. 



1. Below the Siciliquus. 



Siliqua .... 
3 I Obol us - - . . 
6 I 2 I Scrupulum 
12 I 4 I 2 I Setnisextula 



24 j 8 I 4 I 2 I Sextula 

36 ! 12 I 



3 I 1.5 I Siciliquus • 



(Tioy Wei^ht.l 
Dwts. frs. 

2.92 

• 8.76 

• 17.53 

1 11.06 
2 22 13 j 
4 9.191 



2. Above tie Siciliquus. 



Siciliquus - • • 

1 3 I I'uella - 

4 I 3 I Uncia 
48 I 36 I 12 I Libra 



4800|360o!l2ro| 100 | Centun.podium 



Z,i!. 02. dwts. grt. 
4 9 19 

• • 5 20.26 

• • 17 12.79 

• 10 10 9.53 
K7 7 19 17 06 



Measures of Capacity. 



1. For Liquids. 



2. For Things Dry. 



Ligula 



1.5 



Cyathus ... 
Acetabulum • 
2 I Quartarius 

Hcraini 



12 



4 I 2 1 



8 I 4 I 2 I Seitarius 

48 I 24 I 12 1 6 I Coi.gius 
192 I 96 I 48 I 24 I 4 I Uma 



Gall, qlt- pts, 
0.019 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
475 
950 
1.704 
0.3 1 9 



Ligula 

4 I Cyathus 



Qts. 




6 I 1.3 I Acetabulum 



12 I 3 I 2 I Quartarius • 

24 I 6 I 4 I 2 I Hen. ina - 

48 i 12 I 8 I 4 I 2 I Sextarius 

384 I 96 I 61 I 32 I 16 I 8 | Semimodius 



768 { 192 I 128 I 64 I 32 I 16 { 2 | Modius 



2 
3 

3*4 I 192 I '-6 I 48 I 8 I 2 I Amphora 5 2 1j639. Twenty Amphors made a Culeus 



Gill. qt. 
IIJ 



0.019'! 
0.079 jj 

0.237 1 1 

475 I 

950 I 

1.6 6 1 

1.213 

P" . 
793 



1. Below the Pes. 



Measures of L.eiigth. 

2. Above the Pes. 



Sextula 



Siciliquus • 

2 I Semiuncia 

3 I 1.5 I Digitus 



4 I 2 



K3j Uncia - 

12 I 6 I 4 [ 3 I Palm ug 

48 I 24 I 16 I 12 I 4 i Pes 



Inches. 
16 
0.24 
0.4? 
0.72 
97 
-2.91 
116: 



Pes ( 11.64 inches =) 
1.23 I Palmipes • 
1.5 I 1.2 I Cubitus 



Yds. ft 
0.97 



2.5 


2 


1 1.6 


i Pes Seitertiui 


5 


4 


33 


2 1 Passus • 


10 


8 


66 


4 1 2 1 Decemp 


120 1 


96 


80 


48 1 24 1 12 1 A 



5000 I 4000 1 3333. 5 1 000 | 1000 | 500 | 41.6 | Miniare_ 



. 


1.21 . 


. 


1.45 1 


. 


2.42 1 


1 


Lfo 


3 


70 


38 


2.49 . 


1617 


2.7=. • 



270 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

lo (le<liic€ the value of the Roman libra, as tlie congins is said to have held ten pounds nf wine 
;tr water, ft. Tlie actual lUoasiireinerit of ancient buildings now standing at Rome is a method 
which is thought to be most satisfactory. By these various methods the Roman fool is made 
nearly equal lo 12 inches. 

Gasseiidrs experiment to ascertain the Libra frnrii the Con^ms is related in Dis/t. I. appended to vol. iii of GogiteCs Origin ol 

Iaws. &c. Anions the authorities nn tlie Roman mongy, wei!;hts, and measures, the fo lowing may be named in addi ion lo thow 

ci»ed § 270— A'/wrnfT, Afatl/iia, and ffurm, as ciied § 174. — G Buda:u9, L)e Asse et partibiis ejus, libri v Lugd. 15il. 8 — J. F 
yro?iou. IJe Sesc tiis. L B. I69I. — fl. .Ccumni, Syulastnia de poniieribus e' mensuris Rum. Leipz. 1714 8.— The treatises of /^ae(M 
and others in the I lib vol. of Gra-uius, cited § 197.— U. Huopir, S ate of the Ancient Me.-.su.-es, the Attic, Roman, and Jewish, w'nh 
an Appenilix concernm? the old English Money, &c. (published I72i). Ai^o in his woiks. dxf 1757. fol. — /. Grcaues, Dcscriptiuo 
of tlie Roman Font and Denarius.-^/. .^riu/Anof, Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. Lond. 1727. 4 — B. Layigvoilh, Oliservations OQ 
Dr. Arbuthnot'S Dissertation on Coius, Weights, &c. i.ond. I7o4. 4. — Of la^er authors in Metrology, Ltlronne and iVurm (cf. 
\ 174) are most eiiiment. Cf BtM-ideVs Diclionnaire Cla^siqiie ; in which (as also in Cuti!;er's Essay) are good tables of the Greek 
»nd Roman weighs and measures.— Cf. also Frtret, I.es mesores longues des anciens, in the Aftni. Jlcad. Insrr. vol. xxiv. p. 432 — 
Gossetin, Systenies nietriques lineares d'antiquite, in the Mem. de Vlfisiitut, C 1 a s s e A-H:il.. tl Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 44 — i?, Hutsoff 
Essay on the ancient Weights and Money, with an Appendix on the Roman and Greek Foot. Oxf. 1837. 8. 



III. AFFAIRS OF WAR. 

§ 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity pre-eminently war- 
iike; and by an uninterrupted series of s^reat military enterprises made a rapid 
and remarkable advancement in power and dominion. Hence an acquaintance 
with what pertains to their military antiquities must aid in forming a just idea 
of their character and the original sources of their greatness. 

1 u. This knowledge is to be drawn from their chief historians as the primary source ; 
particularly from the commentaries of Julius Ctesar, and the historical works of Livy 
and Tacitus ; to which we may add the Greek writers on Roman history, Polybius and 
Appian, on account of their constant reference to military affairs. Besides these sources, 
there are the Roman writers who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman 
art of war, in its various particulars; viz, Hyginus, Frontinus, and Vegetius. 

2 m. It is from these sources that those who have formed treatises and manuals (/" 
Roman antiquities have derived their materials on this branch of the subject. 

J. Lipsius, de Militia Romana (a comment. on Polybius). Antv. 1606. 4.— C. rfe Aquino, Lexicon Militare. Ronise, 1721. 2 volv. 
fol. — A'n.5( und R'osch, Romische KrifgsalterthUmer, aus echten Quellen geschopft. Halle, 1782. S. A good manual on this branch 
of antiquities — The lOth vol. of Grscvius (cited § 197) consists of treatises by R. H. Sche.liiis and others, on the military afthirs of the 
Rontans. — Cf also Rollin, on the Art military, in The History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients ; found in his Ancient His- 
tory. N. York, IS:}5. 2 vols. 8. — Duncan's Disc, on the Rom. Art of War, in his Transl. of Csesar, cited F. V. § 528. 7. — C. Guis- 
card, Memoires crit. et hist, sur plus, points d'antiquites militaires. Berlin, 1773. 4 vols. 8. Cf § 42. — Le Beau, Memoirs on Roman 
Legion. &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. in difjerent vols, from 25th to 42d. — De Maizeroi, to conifile'e the design of Le Beau, 
ID same Mem. S/'C. vol xlii — Heyne, on the Roman Le ion, &c. Cf. Class. Joiirn. xi. 169. — Gibhcri, in hi-. Rom. Emp. ch. i. 

§ 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system of the Ro- 
mans in the successive periods and revolutions of their history, the antiquary 
must, in treating of this subject, pay constant attention to the order of time. 
Of the Roman art of war in its earliest state, we have but imperfect accounts ; 
but we know that the warlike spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings, 
and gave no dubious intimations of their future career. — In the division of the 
people into three tribes, made by Romulus, a thousand men for foot soldiers and 
a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, and thus originated the 
Jirst Roman lei^ion [containing therefore 3,000 foot soldiers, besides the 300 
horsemen], "^rhe 300 horsemen, called cekres^ and constituting in time of 
peace a bodyguard of the king, were disbanded by Numa, but reorganized by 
TuUus Hostilius, and increased by the addition of 300 noble Albani; the whole 
number of 600 was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus; and the body of horsemen 
at last comprised 2,400 men. 

There is not a perfect agreement in the accounts given respecting the number of men in the 
cavalry ill different F)eriods (cf. Livij, i 30,36; IHiUnrch, Romul. 13,20; Cicrro, De Republ. ii. 
20) ; and there is room for some doubt, whether the whole number at the close of the regal power 
and in the flourishing times of the republic should be stated as 24,00, or as 36,00, or as 54,00.— See 
Zuiiipt and Marquardt, as cited $ 256. 2. 

§ 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 and 45 were 
enrolled among the class of younger men, and liable to service ; while those over 
45- were ranked among the elder men, excused from military duty. They were 
always received to service under a formal oath {mcramenhim). The regular 
time of service was 16 years for foot soldiers, and 10 for horsemen; it was not 
fMjstomary, however, to serve this tiumber of years in succession, and whoever, 
^T the age of 50. had not served the prescribed number of campaigns was still 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF THE ARMY. 27' 

excused from the rest. Persons of no property [capife censi^ were not included 
in the rule of requisition as to service, because having- nnthincr to lose, they 
were not supposed to possess sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted 
wars the time of service was sometimes extended four years longer, and nnder 
the emperors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial ouaid. 
who were required to serve but 16. As all the soldiers were Roman citizens 
and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high estimation; and their peculiar 
rights and privileges v.'ere termed jus r)iil{lias. Freedmen could be admitted 
only into naval service. — In the earliest times the Roman order of battle r^- 
sembled the Grecian phalanx. Subsequently it was a custom to form several 
platoons or divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted, 
which will be described below (§ 286). 

§ 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the army was 
usually commanded by one of the consuls. A consular army commonly con- 
sisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred horse, all native Romans. For 
two consuls a double number was requisite, 4 legions and 1,200 horse. The 
legion contained originally 3,000 foot-soldiers, but gradually increased to 6,000 
and higher. In the second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse ; 
and each legion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of course as 
many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the people, partly from the 
equites, partly from the plebeians. 

1. The niunber of foot-soldiers in a lesion appears to have varied much at different times. 
Cf. Livy, vii. 25 ; xxix. 24; xliv. 21 ; Polybius, iii. 12. 

2 u. In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were over six- 
and-forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their rouniry, and to fill vacancies in 
the city legions ; in such emergencies, freedmen and slaves were sometimes enlisted. 
Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm (Inmultus) were called tumuliwii or 
suhifarii; those of them enlisting voluntarily were called volones. 

3 u. Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, augurs, 
and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily weakness or 
defect. Remission of some part of the legal term of service was, however, often granted 
as a reward of bravery ; this was called vacatio Iwnoraia. 

§ 279. In the levying of the soldiers {de/eclns), the following were the usa^^es 
most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a herald the time of a levy 
(diem edicebant') ; then every citizen, liable to service, must appear, on peril of 
his property and liberty, at the Campus Marti us ; each consul elected for him- 
self two legions, assisted by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were 
taken from all the tribes, which were called successively and separately in an 
order decided by lot. Four men were selected at a time, of which the tribunes 
of each legion, in rotation, took [legerun/) one. Afterwards the oath of fidelity 
{sacrame7}1um) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, then by the Cen- 
turions and the Deeuriones, and lastly by the common soldiers. Then the names 
of the latter class were placed in the roll of the legion, and under the emperors 
a mark was branded on the right hand, that they might he recognized, if they 
attempted desertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, was called 
conqmsitio ,• the same thing among the allies was termed conscriplio. 

§280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to another place 
of assembling, in which they were form,ed into divisions and furnished wills 
arms. The younger and feebler were placed among the light troops, veliles ^ 
the older and richer among the heavy-armed ; to which class belonged the hastati. 
principeSi and iriarii. 

1 u. The haslati were young men in the flower of life, named from the long spear 
used by them at first, and occupying the foremost line in battle; ihe prmcipes vveru 
the men in full vigor of middle age, standing in the second line in battle; the friarii 
the more advanced in age, veterans, constituting the third line in battle and taking thence 
their name. A legion, when it consisted of 3,000, had 1,"200 liaslali, 1,200 prinnpes, 
and 600 Iriarii. 'J he last number always remained the same; the two former were 
variously increased, and light-armed troops {veliles or mllites leves) were added ac- 
cording to pleasure. 

On the three rantis, hastatt, &c., Le Beau, as cited § 275. Mem, IfC. vol. xxix. p. 325. 

2?« On this occasion when the troops were formed into divisions, the colors or stand- 



272 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ards were brought forth from the Capitol and treasury, and committed to the proper 
officers (cf. ^ 282). 

§ 281. The subdivisions were originally manipuli or centurise^ containing each 
a hundred men; and the leader and captain of this number was called Cenlurio 
— When the legion was divided into the three ranks of the hastati, principes, and 
triarii, each rank had at first fifteen maniples ; and the whole legion, of course, 
forty-five maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 regular 
privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The maniples of the hastati 
had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally among them; to the triarii also 
were allowed thirty companies of the same; the principes had none. 

1 u. At another period the legion was divided into 30 maniples, and each of the three 
ranks into 10. The maniples ot the triarii contained still the same number, 60 men m 
each, 600 in all; those of the hastati and principes contained double the number, 120 
men in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks ; among these were divided 1,200 light-armed 
soldiers; thus making a legion of 4,200. Each maniple was now divided into two cen- 
turies, sometimes called ordines. The tenth part ol a legion, three maniples of eacli 
rank, and therefore including 300 men, was called a cohors, and from the number of 
men contained, i ricennaria ; when the legion contained 4,200, the cohort had 420, and 
was termed quadrigenaria ; so also when larger, quhigeiiaria and sexcenaria. 

On th; cohort, Le £tau, as cited § 275. Mem, ^c. vol. xxxii. p. 279. 

2 u. Each maniple had now two centurions, distinguished as prior and posterior ; and 
every centurion had his assistant, called uragus, suhcenturio, and optio. — The 300 horse- 
men belonging to a legion were divided into 10 furmce, and each turma into 3 decuricB, 
consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was called decurio. 

§ 282. Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when in battle. 
The chief standard was always in the first maniple of the triarii, which was 
styled primus pilus. The images and figures upon the Roman standards were 
various; but the principal standard, common to the whole legion, was a silver 
eagle on a staff or pole, sometimes holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an em- 
blem of the Roman power or success. Those of the infantry were usually 
termed signa,- those of the cavalry, vexilla; the bearers, signiferi, or vexillarii. 

1. The vexillum, a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a bar fixed 
across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for foot-soldiers, especially 
for veterans, who were -retained after their term of service ; these were by distinction 
called vexillarii, as they fought under this peculiar standard {sub vexillo) ; they were also 
called suhsigtiani. On the flag were commonly seen the abbreviations for Senatus popu- 
lusque Bommius. or the name of the emperor, in golden or purple letters. — The sigiiitm 
was originally a hanrlfal of hay, expressed by the word manipulus, and it was from this 
circumstance that a division of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards it was a spear 
or staflf with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure of a hand above it, in 
allusion perhaps to the word manipulus ; having below the crosspiece a small shield, 
round or oval, sometimes two, bearing images of the gods or emperors. Augustus in- 
troduced an ensign Ibrmed by fixing a globe on the head of a spear or staff", denoting 
the dominion of the world. When Constantine embraced Christianity, he adopted a 
new imperial standard which was termed the Laharum ; it is described as a long pike 
with a transverse yard at the top, in the form of a cross; from this yard was hung a 
silken veil or banner, of purple color, richly embroidered and ornamented ; the portion 
of the standard above the cross-yard was wrought into a monogram for the word 
'KpiaTog. — "["he standards and colors were regarded with superstitious veneration by all 
classes of the army. 

In our Plate XXXTII. eleven different forms of Roman standards are given, in t!ie figures 
marked Uy the leiter C— Fig. D is the ficvd of Moliamuied, a son of sacred standard or sign of the 
prophet's power among his followers ; it is taken from jMnrier (cited P. V. $ 2\3. .^), who repre- 
sents it as carried in religions processions in Persia. Two fornis of ancient Persian standards 
are also given, in the figures marked B.— 'I'he eight marked A are Egyptian. — Several Roman 
standards are seen also in Plate XXIX ; cf ^ 221. 

Respecting ine Labarum, see L. Coleman, Antiquities of Chr. Cliureh, Note prefixed to Explanation of Plates. — Cf. Clasi.Joum. 
rol. iv. p. 222. 

2. Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — " The Romans used 
only wind-music in their army ; the instruments which served for that purpose may bf 
distinguish^^d into the fnba>, the comua, the huccince, and the litui. — The tubo is supposed 
to have been exactly like our 'trumjiet, running on wider and wider in a direct line to 
the orifice. — The comna Were bent almost round ; they owe their name and original 
to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in the ruder ages. — The hucciiice seem to 
have had the same rise, and may derive their name from hos and cano. It is hard to 
'listin^uish these from the comua, unless they were something less and not quite so 



PLATE XXXIll. 




273 



274 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

crooked. — 'The litui weie a middle kind between the cornua and t hce, being almost 
straight, only a little turning in at the top, like the I'duus or sacred rod of the aujjurs; 
whence they borrowed their name. — 'I'hese instruments being all made of brass, the 
players on them went under the name ot (Bncafores, besides the particular terms of 
luhicines, cornicines, hucchiatores, &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number 
assigned to every manipulus and turma; besides several of higher order, and common 
to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took their station by the ensign and 
colors of their particular company or troop ; the orhers stood near the chief eagle in a 
ring, hard by the general and prime officers; and when the alarm was to be given, af 
the word of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common 
sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this das 
$icum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general" shout at the first encounter, which in latet 
ages they called barritus, from a German original." {Kennel.) 

A form of the Roman cornu is seen in Plate XXVI. fig. B ; of the lituus, probably, in fig. n. See Galand, La Trnmpelle che» 

les anclens, in Ihe Mtm. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104. — Galand, De Tubas origine et usu apud Veteres, in U^olinvs, vol. xxxii as ciied 
t 197. 

§ 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed according- to the class to which 
they belonged. The velites had a round shield (parnia), about three feet in 
diameter, a spear for hurling- (Jiasta velitaris), a helmet of ox-hide (^cudu), or of 
the skin of a wild beast (go/erus), and in later times a sword.. — The hastoti bore 
a large shield (scw/wm), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin 
boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short hut stiff and pointed sword 
(gladiu.s), on the right hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (^pi/d), one 
longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet (ga/ea), whh a crest 
adorned with plumes [crista) ; greaves for the legs, plated with iron [ocreae), 
used in later times only for the right leg; a coat of mail [/orica), formed of 
metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the 
breast to the loins, or a breastplate {thorax') merely. — The principes and triarii 
used weapons of the same kind ; excepting that the triarii had longer spears, 
called hn^tae longas, in later times lanctse^ and long swords, called spathae^t or 
when of smaller size, semi-spat hae. — The shield was marked by the name of the 
soldier and the number of the legion and maniple to which he belonged. Who- 
ever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. — The weapons 
of the cavalry were similar to the Grecian (cf § 138) : a war cap (cassis), a 
coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword 
and dagger, which last was used only in close fight. 

The horsemen in fig. i, of Plate XXX. have a small round shield. Cf. $ 235. 3. A sort of shield 
is also seen in fi;;. 2 of the same Plnie ; which represenis a Roman knight attacking a hiirhjirian 
soldier ; from an antique gem. Both these figures show the horseman's spear. — The scutum and 
fladius of the soldier are seen in Plate XXXlll. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, taken from 
Trajan's Pillar (cf. P. IV. $188. 2).— The shield is likewise seen in fig. 2, which represents a 
legionary with the accouterments and hagg;ige, which he was obliged always to carry in march- 
ing (cf. $ 298. 2).— The lorica or coat of mail may be seen iti Plate XXII. fig. 5, in whii h Ihe legs 
as well as thf body are defended by inail ; this is Ihe figure given in Calmet to illustrate the 
armor of Guliath, the Philistine ; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 
4-7. — In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends down behind to 
defend the neck as well as head ; the figure is drawn from Trajan's Column. In Plate XXX. 
fig. n, is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scule armor; as is his horse also. — For 
Gther articles of armor, see Plates XVII. and XXII. Cf $$ 45 and 139. 

On tne Roman armor, see Meyrick, as cited § 139. — Also, Le Beau (as cited § z75) in the Mem de PAcad. SfC. vol. xxxix. p 4!>r. 

§ 284. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery received no 
pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and wages [slipendixim) 
were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. Each 
soldier had a monthly allowance [demensum) of ahout two bushels of wheat, 
and a stipend of three asses per day. The stipend was afterwards greater; 
Julius Caesar doubled it, and under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. 
The wages were sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as 
a reward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixed for the distri 
bution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of his pay was called 
peculium castrense ; half of which was always deposited with the standards, 
until the term of service expired. 

1 n. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished thern- 

Belves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativa, on the other hand, were 

gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occasions, as e. g. in ca.ses 

of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. Among the rewards, 

'»'dftn and gilded crowns were particularly common; as, the corona castre?isis or val- 



p. Ill MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUXISHMENTS. 275 

/am- to him who first entered the enemy's entrenchments; corona viuralis, to hin; 
who first scaled the enemy's walls ; and corona navalh. for seizing a vessel ot" the 
enemy in a sea-fight; also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms; as 
the corona civica. of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity 
at the hands of the enemy ; the corona ohsidionalis, of grass, for delivering a besieged 
city; and the corona triumphalis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing general. 

The various rrowns above nanied are exhibited in Plate XVI. Fig. 1 is the civica; fi? 2, tb« 
castrevsis ; 3. tlie nbsidionalis ; 4, the viuralis ; .5, the navalis ; 7, the triumphalis. — Fig. 6 is the 
radiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors. 

2. " There were smaller rewards (prcemia ininora) of various kinds ; as a spear with- 
out any iron on it {hasfa pura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end of a lance 
or spear (wftcy'ZZ^w?) 'of different colors, with or without embroidery ; trappings {phalerce). 
ornaments for horses, and for men ; golden chains [aurecB torques), which went round 
the neck, whereas the phalera hung down on the breast; bracelets {urmlllcB), orna- 
ments for the arms ; comicula, ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; caiellcE 
or ca.tenul(B, chains composed of rings; whereas the iorques were twisted {tortce) like a 
rope ; ,^ft?yZ(E, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." {Adam). Another 
form of reward was an exemptiosi from service {vacalio) by release before the legal 
term was finished (cf. ^ 278. 3). At the expiration of the term of service, the soldiers 
received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was sometimes called emerilum ; 
those who had served their time out being also called emeriti. 

The lorqiies is seen on the Dying Gladiator (cf. P. IV. ^ 1S6. 9). — See Archieologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol xxii. p. 285, on 
an ancient bronze bracelet. 

§ 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes were very 
severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neorlect of watch, 
leaving^ a post assigned, or cowardly fligrht, was visited with the punishment 
Cd-Wed ftisfiinriiim, in which, on a signal from a tribune, the whole leorion fell to 
beatincr the offender w'ith sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his dis- 
grace was scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this 
punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and the rest 
were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead of wheat for their 
allowance. Often distrrace was inflicted in other ways, as by loss of pay 
(^slipenrlio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when a soldier of. the triarii was de- 
graded into the hastaii. The tribunes could inflict ptmishments only after in- 
vesticration of the case; the general, on the other hand, could immediately and 
absolutely pronounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for 
wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrection and desertion. The mode of in- 
flictingr death was not uniform. 

§ 280. Of the Roman order of battle (ncies) a general idea may be given here ; 
a minute detail would belong rather to a system of tactics. The legions were 
commonly ranged in three lines, the foremost occupied by the kastali, the next 
by the principes^ and the last by the friar it. Between each two maniples a 
space was left, so that the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces 
of the first, and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. 
These spaces were termed rectae viae, and were as broad as the maniples them- 
selves. 

1 ?i. This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage both of stability 
and of being easily changed; it avoided all confusion and interruption, and was espe- 
cially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (V> 142), which it could easily penetrate 
and route. It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was often, in anti- 
cipation of attack, changed so as to close up' the spaces. But in this form of arrange 
nient the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and 
by means of their separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and 
defence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and ther men in the maniples 
three feet froin each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier had 
scarcely more than room for his shield. 

2. To the disposition of the soldiers in the thiee lines of haatati, ■princi-pes, and triarii, 
as above descrilied, some have applied the phrase triplex acirs (cf. Sallust. Bell. Jug. 
49); others consider the phrase as sometimes at least meaning simply an arrangemen- 
in three lines; an arrangement in two lines being called acies ditjdex. Other methods 
of drawing up the army for battle were occasionally used. We mention here the 
corneas, in which the army was arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce anc 
break the enemy's lines; the globus, in which the troops were collected intp a close, 
firm, round body, usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfx. in which the army 
:ook a form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in order to 



276 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

receive the enemy when I'oming in the shape of a wedge ; ihe serra, in which tht linoa 
were extended, and in maiving the engagement some parts of the liont advanced before 
the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a hitle like the teeth of a saw. 

§ 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the lighf-armed 
troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line ; but after- 
wards they were stationed in the intervals between the maniples, behind them, 
or on the wings, and made attack in connection with the hasiaii. A considerable 
part of the light-armed were stationed behind the trlarii, to support them. The 
attack commenced wben the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from 
the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the haatati ad- 
vanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were 
not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was 
given for retreat; on which the lighl-arrned linA the hastati drew hack through 
the intervals of the second line, and the prindpes advanced to the fight. In 
the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their 
right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields, 
and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards; the line 
thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the prindpes were com- 
pelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the prindpes and the hastati 
being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks [ciu/i- 
pressis ordinibtis) and all three in a body {una continente agmine). This united 
attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. 

§ 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They 
were conmionly called velites ; in early times, however, rorarii and accensi, 
sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and ferentarii. They carried no shields, 
but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into 
fifteen companies {expediti manipuli^ or expeditae cohortes), and besides these 
there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The 
light-armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the 
enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword. 

1 u. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, about 
forty being joined to each maniple. — 1 hey were of three different classes, designated 
by their principal weapon; jacM/a<o/'es, who hurled the javelin ; sagUtarii, who shot the 
arrow ; and fundifores; who cast stones or bails with the sjing. There were also 
afterwards tragularii and l>alislarii, who threw siones by tlie aid of machines. 
In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, is a Roman fuvditor ; fig. b, a Sagittarius. 

2u. Those called antesignani were not the liglit-armed, but probably v/ere the 
soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. — I'he position ol' the light-armed 
during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that most commonly they stood in 
three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their 
attacks through the intervals between the maniples. 

§ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their army, espe- 
cially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens en- 
joyed a high estimation and rank already noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular 
establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted 
chiefiy of the noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case 
on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble 
youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ; the same was true under the fol- 
lowing kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic, 
the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry 
of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken 
into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of 
later times served only among the Fnetorians^ or the imperial bodyguard 
(cf. § 309). 

§ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions, 
while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed 
especially on the wing. — The forces, commonly called alas were different from 
the legionary cavalry; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners 
and employed to guard the flanks of the army. — The number of horsemen con- 
nected with a legion has already been named (cf. §§ 276, 278, 281) ; commonly 
300: sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. § 292) had the same 



p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 277 

number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater number of horsemen ^ 
although the ratio was not always the same. 

1 u. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turmcB, corresponding to the 
number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to the number of 
maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had 
three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma; three ura^'t 
(d-'payol) were under them. In how many lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for 
battle is not known. In an attack, the first l>ne of turmcB endeavored to break the 
ranks of the enemy ; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were 
arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 

2 u. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their 
heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in pro- 
tecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitering the enemy, collecting forage, occupy- 
ing remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the routed foe. Where the ground 
v/as uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on toot. 

On Ihe Roman cavalry, Le Beau, as cited § <J75, Mem. ^c. vol. xxviii. — Zumpt, cited § 256 2. 

§ 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet threefold, but the 
foot were ranged in a single line, the horse were placed in a second to support 
them. In the year of the city 500, B. C. 252, the threefold arrangement of the 
legion seems to have been adopted. The cohorts have already been mentioned 
(§ 281); these also had their particular arrangement, which probably was 
formed originally by uniting the maniples, a thing not common until later times, 
since in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was still 
practiced. Towards the end of the republic, the threefold division of the le- 
gionaries was abolished ; and the legion now consisted of ten cohorts, each of 
which contained 400 or 500 men. After the time of Caesar, the more frequent 
order of battle was to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of 
the two others. — Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more 
like the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was a single compact 
line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian phalanx was adopted, 
but it was renounced. 

§ 292. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that the se con- 
sisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an early period, either 
of choice or after subjection, entered into treaty with the Romans, and bound 
themselves to furnish for the field as many foot-soldiers as the Romans, with 
more than the Roman proportion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied 
the two wings when drawn up in battle-array. 

1 It. A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied states, con 
tained eight legions; although the nutnber of allies was not always exactly the same 
When in process of time the allies {socii) were admitted to Roman citizenship, the dis 
tinction made between them and the Romans ceased. 

2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different at dif 
ferent times. "During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every 
year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet in cases of necessity we sometimes 
meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Augustus maintained a standing 
army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 legions." {Kennelt.) 

Respecting the military establisliment of the emperors, see Gibbon, Rmi. Emp. ch. i. — Of. § 309. 

3. The forces of the allies were termed alee, from the circumstance of being usually 
placed on the flanks. They were under command of officers appointed for the pur- 
pose, called prcnfecli. A portion of the foot- and horse of the allies, called exlraordi- 
r/irii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, called ablecli, served him as a 
special guard 

§ 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of attendants, 
and baggage and machines of war. Among the numerous attendants were the 
following; tlte fabri, mechanics, workers in wood and metal ; lixae, sutlers, 
holding a sort of market; chirurgi, field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed 
ten to a legion; metatores, whose business was to mark uut and fix the ground 
for' encampments ; frumentarii, who had the care of furnishmg provisions; 
librarii and scrihas, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care 
of a quarter-master. — The proper baggage of the arrny {;impedi mental consisted 
nartly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (sarcinae), partly of weapons, 
military engines, stores, provisions, and the like, which were carried in wagons 



178 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

anl on beasts of burden. Each person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant 
(^agaso) to carry his bajjgao^e. The servants and waiting boys of the legions 
were termed ca/ones. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but 
in later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of proper 
soldiers. 

§ 294. The order of inarch, when a Roman army moved to the field or into 
the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed went in advance; then 
followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse; then the persons needed to' 
pitch and prepare the camp, to level the grounds and perform other necessary 
work; then the baggage of the general (dux) and of his lieutenants {legait), 
guarded by horsemen; then the general himself under his usual escort; then 
124 horsemen; after which came the military tribunes and other officers. After 
these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, and last 
the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This seems to have been 
the usual order of march ; but it was of course changed and modified in different 
cases in reference to the nature of the ground, the country, and other circum- 
stances. The order in marching out of camp was also somewhat different. 
And in order to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions 
also were required to relieve each other in position. 

§ 295. Besides the arrangements for battle mentioned already (§ 286), some 
others adopted particularly in marching should be mentioned; The airmen 
qiiadratum was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that 
of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the enemy, 
or on a retreat; the agmen pilatum, or jws/wm, was a close array in marching. 
OrZ*zs signified not a circular form, but such a four-sided arrangement as pre- 
sented a front on every side. The iesiudo was also ?n arrangement of the sol- 
diers, in which they stood close together, raising their shields so as to form a 
compact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they 
approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at a certain 
distance. The iurris was an oblong quadrangular form, with the end or narrow 
side presented to the foe; laterculus was the same, considered only in its 
breadth. 

§ 296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars the Grecian, 
but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied only for a short time 
during a march was called casira, and in the later ages, mansion casira siaiiva 
signified a more permanent camp, in which the army remained for a length of 
time, e. g. over a winter, therefore termed caairn hiberna. or through summer, 
casira aestiva. The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw, 
and rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. The 
highest and freest part of it v»^as chosen for the head-quarters of the general. 
This was called the praeiurium, and occupied a space of four hundred feet 
square. Here the council of war was held. A particular spot in it was appro- 
priated for taking the auspices, avgtn-ale ; and another for the erection of the 
tribunal,, whence the commander sometimes addressed the arn)y. In this space 
were the tents of the conlubemales of the general (the young Patricians who 
attended upon him as volunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train. 
Near the praetorium were the tents of the officers and the bodyguards. The 
entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy. 

^ 297 ^ On the right of the Praetorium (e), was the F'orurri (v), an open space for a 
market, and lor martial courts; and on the ielt the Quccstoriuvi (w), where the stores, 
money, arms, and the like were kept. A select por'ion of the cavalry, eqnites ablech 
el tvocati (o, o) were also stationed on each side of the Proptorium, and behind them 
the pprJites allecti et fvocafi (p, p). Next were the tents of ihe Tribunes (**) and of 
ihe Prsefects I. r+'. Then was a passage, or free way, called pri?icipia (u), 100 feet 
wide, extending through the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d). 
The rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the center of 
'.his lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direction. 
On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the triarii (i) were 
cast ; then beyond these lents, on each side, was another passage 50 feet wide, and 
Uien the tents of the prhiclpes (k) and hastat i {h) ; ai^.d after another similar passage 
beyond these on each side, the tents of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (M)and infantry (n). 
These five passages were crossed at right angles, in the center, by another of the same 



PLATE XXXIV. 




279 



•^80 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

width, termed Via quintana (t) because five maniples were encamped on each siu6 
of it. In each tent there were eleven men, which formed a conluheniiiim, one ot them 
having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 200 feet wide, 
which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and served also lor d3fense 
in case of an attack from an enemy. 

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. The 
ditch or foss was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep ; the rampart three feet 
nigh ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart was formed 
of the earth thrown (asger) from the ditch, wiih sharp stakes {sndes) fixed therein. 
On each of the four sides was an opening or gme, porta, g\iarded by a whole cohort. 
These gates were called porta prcetoria (a), being near the head-quarters towards the 
enemy ; porta decumana (b), on the opposite side of the camp, called also qusestoria, as 
in earlier times the quoestorium was near it ; porla principalis dexLra (d), and porta 
principalis sinistra (c), being near the principia. 

A plan of a consitlar camp is seen in Plate XXXIV. fig. P, as given in Boyd's ed. of Adnrn ; it 
is drawn from the description of Polyhins (Hist. vi. 24). — The letters and signs included in pa- 
rentheses in the above description refer severally to the Cf)rresponding marks in the Plan. ^1 he 
letters Q Q. in the Plan, designate the tents occii[»ied hy the extra ordinarrj cavalry of the allies; 
R R, hy the exiranrdinary foot of the allies ; S S, by strangers and occasional allies. — In fig. R is 
a section ot'a/(/s.s«, Jiere given as twelve feet broad and nine deep; showing also the (iffger and 
Slides. 

§ 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed vigiJlae ; 
excuhiae also sicjnifies properly niorht-watches, but is used in a more Pfeneral 
sense ; statio was the name for each single post. Two tribunes had constantly 
the oversight of the whole camp, which the same two retained, at the longest, 
for two months. At their tents all the officers and leaders were required to 
assemble at daybreak and with them go to the general to receive his commands. 
The watchword {symhuluin) was called tessera^ from the four sides or corners 
of the little wooden block on which it was written. 

1 u. The watchword was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to the 
centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the tribunes to the 
centurions were called ^esseror//. Short commands were often written on similar 
tablets, and in like manner rapidly circu. ated through the army. Before the head- 
quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by night. The outworks of the 
camp were occupied by the light-armed. Every maniple was obliged to place four men 
upon guard, so that 240 men were always on the watch in a camp of two legions. The 
night was divided into four parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end 
of which the guards {vigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the au.xilia- 
ries had also their guards and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the 
watch on duty, and make the formal round {circuitio vigilum) or visit the several posts 
or stations. 

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in various ex- 
ercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exe.rcitns. These exercises included 
walking and running completely armed ; leaping, swimming, vaulting upon horses of 
wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carrying weights, attacking a wooden 
image of a man as an enemy, &c. — It was essential to the comfort of the soldier, that 
he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with perfect ease ; in common march- 
ing he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions 
and customary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. — 
The exercises were performed under the training of the campidoc Lores. 

3. The winter quarters {casira hihernn) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under the 
emperors particularly, were furnished with every acconunodation like a city, as storehouses, 
workshops (fnbriccn), an infirmary (vnlftiidivnrium), <fec. Many European towns are siippr-sed 
to have had their origin in such establishments; in England, particularly those whose names 
end in Chester or cester. i~^dam) .—Cf. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Hritain. 

§ 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encircling it with 
troops, and the encircling lines {corona) were, in case of populous cities, some- 
times double or triple. In the attacks upon the city they employed various 
methods, and engines of various sorts. 

1 u. The festudo before mentioned (§ 295) was frequently used ; upon the shields 
thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walU 
they mounted by the help of scaling-ladders {scala'). — The crates, hurdles, were a kind 
of basket-work of willow; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakevs, borne in the 
hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack ; 
diey were also emjiloyed by the besieged as a breastwork on their walls, and on 
Tiarches they served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places. — Vinece were 
lortable sheds or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, ant* sixteen 



p. 111. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. 28T 

long. They were filled out and covered with wickerwork or hides, and served to pro 
tect from the arrows of the enemy while the soldiers were undermining the walls. 

Fi^. 1, of Plate XXXIV. shows the use of the testudo by a bodj of soldiers approaching a wall 
according to the statement above. — Fig.2shows the manner of foiming the crates, and \.\\evinea). 

2u. For a similar purpose were the plutei, wooden shelters, covered wiih hides, and 
moved upon wheels or rollers. Under these the shngers and archers especially placed 
themselves, and sought to force the defenders from their walls, in order that the scaling- 
ladders might be the more easily and effectually applied. Of the same kind, yet 
stronger were the musculi ; and also the testudines (wooden shelters to be distinguished 
from testudo before mentioned) ; these were most commonly used to protect the work- 
men in erecting a fortification, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some of these 
shelters they otten covered the battering ram. 

Fig. 8, Plate XXXIV. is a pluteus, advancirg against a wall. 

3 m. The battering ram was a large beam employed to break in the walls of the 
besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was managed immediately by the 
hands of certain soldiers without protection, but was afterwards placed under the shel- 
ters just described, which covered the men who thrust it against the walls. Its name, 
aries, was derived from its front end, which was covered with iron in a form resembhng 
a ram's head. Sometimes it was composed of several pieces united, and so large that 
125 men were required to work it. 

The falces murales and asseres fulcati were beams with iron hooks, to break and 
tear down the upper breastwork on the walls ; they were managed by the aid of ropes. — 
Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use, were termed the 
grus and the corvus. — The terebra was an instrument employed for opening a hole in 
the walls. 

In fig. 4, of Plate XXXIV. is the battering-ram in its simple form, suspended by ropes from a 
rross-heam fixed above two posts driven into the ground. In fig. 5, it is attached to a complete 
and substantial frame placed upon rollers. In fig. 10, it appears under a shelter as above men- 
tioned. — Fig. 9 shows the asser falcatus. 

4 II,. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to construct mounds {ag- 
geres) as high as the walls of the city, or higher. On these mounds were placed tlie 
military engines, also movable towers and other shelters of the soldiers. By means 
of boards, palisades, and wooden grapnels, they were made capable of sustaining such 
vast weights. On account of the great quantity of wood- work in them, the besieged 
generally strove to destroy them by fire, which was often appHed by mining under 
ground. 

These towers {turres) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet high, add of 
ten or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollers. From the upper 
stories were ustially cast arrows, javelins, and stones ; from the middle, a bridge or 
passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls; and in the lower one the battering 
ram was brought forward. When they reached the slope of the mound, they were 
taken to pieces by stories and reconstructed on its summit. To protect them from 
lire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened with a 

solution of alum.- A long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow, 

smeared with pilch and resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy froin a tower, 
vi'as called falarica, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which they 
were thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or bunches of tow 
attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy. 

Fig. 3, Plate XXXIV. is a specimen of the movable towers. 

5 u. One of the most common and largest engines was the calaptdfa, by which 
arrows, javelins, and particularly stones were hurled a great distance. Stakes, sharp- 
pointed and hardened in the fire (called nrlides or sudes missiles) were also thrown Irom 
the catapultcB. — In a siege there were usually a multitude of these machines. 'I heir 
construction is not well understood; we onJy know that rr|)rs at^d rords or sinews 
were used in order to shoot the arrows and o'her weapons, which they threw with fatal 
efficacy. — Of a similar kind was the 7,(/Z/s/r/ ,• called also in later times o?uiger, and 
designed chiefly for throwing the javelin. — For shooting arrows, somninies poisoned, 
the Romans made use of an engine termed the scorpio, which could be managed by ? 
single man. 

Fig. 6. of Plate XXXIV. is the scorpio.—Fig. 7 is the balista, but on a scale more reduced. 

§ 300. The modes of defense on the part of the besieged were various. 

1 u. They hurled rocks, often more than a himdred pounds in weight, upon the be 
siegers, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil. ai.d endeavored to thrust down thp 
scaling-ladder by means of iron hooks, and to kill, force back, or pull up to themselves 
the soldiers attempting to mount. 'J'he thrusts of ihc battering- i-am •licy s.ought to 
baflHe or weaken by hanging sacks before it, and in various other ways, and even to 
«ev7e and draw it up by their ropes and springs. They likewise cast burning torchrj. 

22 



\582 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

upon the wooden engijies of the besiegers, and in other ways attempted to set them 
on fire. 

2. " Where they apprehended a breach would be made, they reared new walls be- 
hind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed various meihods to defend 
themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. {Liv. xlii. 63.) — But these, 
and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be best understood by reading the 
accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges, particularly of Syracuse by Marcellus [Liv. 
xxiv. 33), of Anibracia by Fulvius {Id. xxxviii. 4), of Alesia by .Julius Caesar (rie Bell. 
Gall, vii.), of xMarseilles by his lieutenants {Ccbs. B. Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titus 
Vespasian (Joseph, de Bell. Jud.).''^ 

§ 301. In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fiorht, and only in 
special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a permanent naval power, 
and always kept twojleels ready for sail, each manned with a legion, at the two 
harbors of Misenum and Ravenna. 

1 u. The warriors engaged in this service were called classiarii, and were enlisted in 
the saiTie way as the legions of the land forces, but often taken from among them. 
The highest officers or commanders of the fleet {cla.fsis) were originally the Duumviri 
vavales, afterwards a Consul or a Praetor, who was called prafeclus classis, and sta- 
tioned in the most distinguished vessel ^lavis prcetoria) known by its flag {vexillum 
pnrptireiim). Every other ship had a tribune or centurion for its particular com- 
mander (navarchus). Upon the upper deck {stega, conslratum navis) stood the fight 
ing men. 

2. Besides the navarchus or commander (called also magister navis), each ship had a 
pilot (guhernalor, rector) and sometimes two, who had an assistant (prdrela) to watch 
at the prow. Besides the classiarii or fighting-men (marines, called^lso epibalce), 
there were also the rowers {remiges) who were more or less numerous according to the 
size of the galley; these were under a leader or director {hortaior, KeXEvarrn, cf. ^ 158,) 
who with his voice and a little mallet {portisculus) guided their motions. 

3 II. War-towers were often placed on board the vessels, commonly two, one in the 
fort part, the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding a vessel of the enemy 
the ferrecB manus, harpagones, and corvi were employed ; there were also other instru- 
ments of this sort; combustible materials and the hke were used in order to fire the 
ehips of the enemy. 

^ 302 ?f. On engaging in a fight, the sails {vela) were usually furled, because they 
would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed by the rudder alone. The fleet 
was arranged by the commander in a sort of battle-array, and each vessel was as- 
signed its place, which it must maintain. A position as far as possible from land was 
usually desired. The larger vessels were usually placed in front, although the order 
of arrangement for naval combat was by no means uniform, but very. various. The 
following forms are mentioned ; acies simplex, cuueala, lunata, falcala. Before the 
battle commenced, the omens were examined, sacrifices and vows were oflTered. Then 
upon all the ships was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for at- 
tack was given by a trumpet {classicum). The contest consisted partly in the rapid 
and violent rushing of the vessels against those of the enemy, for the purpose of 
piercing the hostile ships by means of the rostra, which were two strong beams at the 
prow of the galley, covered with iron at the points, and made fast to both sides of the 
keel; partly in throwing darts, spears, grapphng irons, and the like; and partly in 
actual close combat. 

*5i 303. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similar to those of a Grecian {^ 155), 
The following were some of the tenns ; prora, prow; piippis, stern; alveus, belly; 
statumina. ribs; sentina, pump to draw oflT bilge- water (?ja«iea) ; /oramma, holes to 
put out the oars {remi) ; sedilia, transtra, seats of the rowers; scalmtis, the piece of 
wood to which the oar was tied by thongs {sfroppi); guhernaculum, clavus, rudder; 
two rudders were common ; ivyiune, the image at the prow ; tutela, the image at the 
stern; oplustria, ornamental parts at the stern, sometimes at the prow, having a sort 
df statf with a streamer {t(p.ma); mains, mast ; modius, the place in which the mast 
was fixed : anteiuKP., hrachia, yards for the sails {vela) ; cornua, extremities of the 
yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the cornua. The rigging and tackling in general 
was called armnmenta ; the ropes, rudentes, or fanes ; the anchor, anchora ; sound- 
mg-lead, mohjhdis ; the ballast, sahnrra. 

'5>304. The Roman shi])s were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, ^'"> 
transport, and the ship of burden .; the first was propelled chiefly by oars ; the seconj 
•vas often towed by ropes; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were 
called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves oneraricB ; 
they were commonly much inferior in size to m dern trading vessels : although some 
ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk 
in the time of Calisula. said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often teemed 
xaves long(P., being longer than others; naves turritcB from the towers constructed on 
Ufrn ; also ^o.itrdta;, cBratce, from their beaks ; and particularly tr 'remes, quadrirevie.s. 



F. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE TRIUMPH. 28^3 

&c., from trie number of benches oi rowers in them severally. As manj' as tei, 
banks are mentioned; Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with sixieen banks; and Pto 
lemy Philopai.or is said to have built one with for-ty banks. On the manner in which 
the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to § 156. .2. 

The naves Liburniccp. were light, fast-sailing ships, made after (he model of the 
galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — '1 lie p/uistJi, or 
TMves acluuricB, were a kind of yacht or small bark, with lew oars, also designed foi 
expedition. — 'I'he CamarcB were of a peculiar cpnstruction, with two prows and rud- 
ders, one at each end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without 
turning; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. {Tac. 
Mor. Germ. 44.) 

Fig. 1, of Plate XXTIT. is a specimen of the phaseUis. — Fisr. 3 is the Lrburniav galley.— Fisr. 2 is 
the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shnws the two rudders, attached on 
each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be raised onl of water 
by 'ashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. ^cts x.wii. ^tO 

(In ihe stiips of the Romans, see Scheffer, Holwell, Le Roy. he. as cited ^ 156. 2. — /. (^cssiu$. t)e Liburnicarum Cons'ruclione, ir 

C-rxV'US. vol lii. It was stated, in 1835, ttiat tlie port of Pompeii had heen discovered, presenting Vr-ssels thrown upon the' 

lides ii.d covered by tlie volcanic m:itler. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing London LiUrary Gazette.) 

§ .^05. The orreat public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an 
"'nnportant victory by sea, or by land, was the triumph, a pontpous show, which 
•vas practiced even in the time of the kinjrs. This honor, however, could be 
acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors; 
It was not awarded to Proconsuls. Yet in later times there were some excep- 
tions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not 
merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must have 
been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Praetor. The importance 
of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state, also came into 
consideration; and the general must have brought back his army to share with 
him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the vic- 
tory consisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a 
triumph. 

§ 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a victory, was a 
thanksgiving or siippli cat io (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate 
in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the 
people, contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed 
by the people permitting the general to retain his command {Jmperium) in the 
city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required 
to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors 
of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumpha- 
//s Porcm, which prohibited a triumph unless at least five thousand of the enemy 
had fallen in battle. 

§ 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city until the day 
of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the 
city in the temple of Bellona. The expenses were usually defrayed from the 
public treasury, except in cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession 
without public authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The 
expenses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually 
distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to meet the 
triumphing genera] as far as the gate by which he entered the city. 

1 11. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line, ordi- 
narily, were the lictors and magistra'es in a body.. '1 hey were followed by the tn.tn- 
peters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacrifice, the spoiLs 
and booty taken i'rom the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, i)icturcy 
and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other pri- 
soners. Then came the conqueror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by tout 
white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was lollowed by 
his numerous train, consisting partly ol his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn 
out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, througf 
the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the 
spoils of the victory were consecrated lo the gods. Afterwards were (easting, nicrn- 
nient, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The 
pomp, expense, and luxury attending them became constantly greater and greater, 
and the whole custom, on account of its frequent occurrence, and the great fibusf. of 
'.I by some of the emnerors, was reduced at last to a common and coniemptib'e nffaii 



3S4 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

—The first (riumph for a victory at sea (.friuniphus navalis) wa? obtained by the Con 
sul C Duillius, alter his memorable defeat oi the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 

2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Uuillius, see P. IV. $ 133. — For a fuller 
?iew of a triumphal display, read Plutarch's description of the triumph of Pauliis J3milins, afier 
Ihe capture of Peiseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in his 
Life by Vo-piscns (of Gihbon,vM \\). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constan- 
tinople, related by Procopiiis (cf P. V. $ 257. — Gibbon, ch. xli.) — The total number of triumphs 
upon record down to that of Belisarius has been calculated as amounting to three hundred and 
fifty. 

It may be worthy of remark, that the phrase aurvm corovariuvi had its origin in a custom con- 
nected with the triumph of a general ; the cities of the province where his victory was obtained, 
and those of other provinces also, used lo send to h\m golden crowns, which were carried before 
him in the triumphal procession. Cn. Manlius had two hundred crowns carried before hnn in 
his triumph on account of his victories in Asia {Lio. x.xxix. 7). At length it became customary 
to send, instead of the crown, a sum of money, which was called aurum coronarium (cf. Aul 
Gell. V. 6). 

§ 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triunnph, frequently bestowed 
on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not differ very much in form from 
the triumph ; the essential peculiarities were, that the general entered the city 
not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the 
praslexla only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep 
(ovis). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was probably 
taken. The triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded t^ (§ 307), was less 
pompons. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph 
in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies 
were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, 
marched to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, situated on the mount. 

§ 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes under the 
emperors. 

1 u. By Augustus a standing army was estabhshed ; he also created an officer 
called FrfrfcClus prrBtorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial 
bodyguard and the prjetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Roman military ser- 
vice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support 
the authority of the emperors, not lo promote the welfare of the country ; and to for- 
ward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of ihe soldiers were overlooked. 
From the same cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between 
the military and the other classes of citizens. 

The prsetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into ten 
cohorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abo- 
lished, and 3500 Armenians were enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine 
scholcB, and commanded by the officer styled Magister officiorum. 

The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, dis- 
tributed among the provinces. Besides these he had ten prcBlorian cohorts just named, 
SIX city caliorls of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which 
together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly 
iincreased. as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western 
comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy. 

AH the commencement of the civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty 
iCgions, distritnited as follows : three in Britannia ; tiiree in Ilispania ; eif/ht in Gallia, three of 
them being in the portion called Upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P. I. $ 17); 
I'wo in Pannonia ; two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Mcesia ; four in Syria, with 
three more in .Tudea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. I. $ 173). 

2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded 
the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect of the praetorian 
bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred 
.only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The appointment was made or 
the commission conferred by the emperor's delivering a sword to the person selected. 
SxDrneiimes there were two praetorian praefects. 1 heir power was at first only mi!i 
tary and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them, 
tmd there was no appeal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius com 
mitted this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praeto 
nan cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates 
yiminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius sixteen praetorian cohorts were raised, and 
four to ginrd the city. Severus new- modeled the body .nnd increased them to four 
tim'es the ancient num'oer. Constantine the Great finally suppressed them and de- 
stroyed their camp. (Bo7/r/'s'Adam, p. 123, 485). 

3. Important changes in. the military system were made by Constantine. lie ap- 
pointed two general comirianders for the whole army, called Magislri viiliti(B ; one 
of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum; the other, of the whoU 
nfantry, Magister vcditum. 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FREEMEN AND SLAVES 285 

CDiisiamine did not abolish the title of Pnefecfus prcetorin. when he suppressed the jraetorun 
Cdlioris, as above nienlioned; but he changed ihe nature of the oflice, making it wholly a civil 
one, and dividine the care of the whole empire between /(/wr officers if this title; Prcsfectus prte- 
toriu Orjentis ; Pr<p.ftctus pr<etiirio per lllyrictim , Prcrfectus prAlcrw per fialiag ; Prccfectun pre- 
torio Oalliarum. 'I he city of Home also retained her special overseer. Prcrfictus urbia Rvvub ^ 
and a similar officer, with greater anthority, was appointed nver Constantinople, which now 
became the seat of the empire, Pra>fectiis hrbis Constantijii pidis. Under tbe four pra?fects wer« 
subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to pariicuJar dioceses, of which there were 
thirteen; one of them governed by the officer styled Count of the diocese of tbe E;ist {Uumca 
diaceseus Ortentis); another, consisting of Egypt, byan officer styled PrcEf'Ctiig<^2gipti ; and the 
other eleveti by officers styled Vicarii or vice-praefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a 
great number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed procofiDules, 
eotisulares, correctores, and presides. 

4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of Con- 
stantine. In the western, the mihtary jurisdiction continued to be vested in two com- 
manders styled Magister equilum and Magister peditmn. In the eastern, it was 
vesied in the officers styled Magistri militum, and the nuinber of them was five in the 
time of Theodosius the Great, who shortlv before his death, A. D. 395, united the 
empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final 
overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of ihe military each 
had command of several squadrons (vex ilia (io7ies) of horse and several legions of sol- 
diers {palatines comitatenses) and several corps oi auxiliaries {auxiliu) :, two of theua 
had also under their comiriand a naval force, consisting of twelve distinct armament-s 
or fleets, six being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military 
establishment, in addition to the lorces already mentioned, a large body of troops de- 
signed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded 
by comiles and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed Quces- 
tor sacri palatii. — The Masters- general of the West had under their command torces 
of a similar description, including also troops designated specially ior the defence of 
the frontier. There was a Magister militum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Mas- 
ters-general. 

For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire iinder Constantine and later emperors, see Gibbon, ch. 
xvii. — For more minute details. Tableau SysUmatiqut des Empires (POrieiit el {POccident, &c in 3d vol. of SchoWs Hist. Litt 
Romaine. — The Notitia Orientis et Occidentis, as edited by Pa7iciroli, or more recently by Boching, as cited P. V § 571. — Cf. Mai'^9 
Leben Constant, d. Gr. Berl.- 1817. 8. 



IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 

§ 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and sociai 
relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinc- 
tion which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes 
of freemen, the free-born {Jnge7mi), whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the 
free made {liberti) or freedmen who had been enfranchised from servitude, and 
who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens The children of th-e 
latter class were termed //6er/m^ and their orrandchildren ingenui, in early times; 
at a later period the freedmen were called liherli only with reference to their for- 
mer master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, 
while their sons, if born after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. — 
The slaves were such by birth, vernas ; or by captivity in war; or by ptirchase, 
mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of 
their manumission, we will speak below (§3*22). 

On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, we may refer to dKimay de la vl* 
privee des Remains. Lausinne, I76P. \i. {Consisting chiefly of treatises in ihe Memoins de VAeademie det [nscriptitms.) Traii6. 
Germ. 1-eipz, 1761. 8. Engl. Trans. Lond. 1764. \2.— Sketches (/Ibe Dome^lk Manners of the Romans. R prin'ed, Phil. 1^22. li. 
Cf. N. Am Rev. xvi. 163.— C'oitrure, La vie privee des .Rniii-.in>. in Mie Mm. Jiad. Inscr. vol. i. 303.— Maiilfaucon, Usages du 
liecle de Theodore le Grand, m the Mem. Acad. In^cr. Vol. xiii. p. 474 —Especially W. Becker, Gallus (R(iiiia,n Life in the time o< 
Augustus). 

§311. The Romans commonly had tnree names; the first was called the 
prsenonien, and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second 
was called the nomen, and was the name of the race or clan (gevs) ; the third 
was the cognomen, which designated the family {fnniilin)'. thus, in J\ihh'us 
Corneluis Scipto ; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius 
the nomen pointing out the clan or gens to which the family Delon<red, and l^ub- 
Hus the p-a3nowen marking the particular man. The dibiinction Detween ^'e/js 
and familia was, that the former was more general, denoting a whole tribe oi 
race; the latter more limited, confined to a single branch of it. — The datightf r 
rommonly received the name of the tribe or race, e. ^. 0.*rnelia^ and retained i' 



<iS6 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

after her marriage. Sisters were distinguished by adding to this name the 
epithets jnajur and minor, or prima, secunda, tertia, &c. 

1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the agnomen t 
this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be properly included 
under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, although they usually 
stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper name of the individual waa 
irequently put last. 

2 u. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogeneous 
inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was increased by 
the adoption of plebeians among tlie patricians. The following were some of the 
most distinguished races; Fahia (gens), Junta, Antonia, Julia, Emilia, Fumpeia, 
Tullia, Horatia, Oclavia, Valeria, Fosthumia, Sulpicia, Claudia, Fapiria, Cornelia, 
Manlia, Sempronia, Hortensia. 

The names of families were often derived from the employment of an ancestor (cf. P. V.$483). 
Names were also applied to individuals by way of ridicule ; that which was at first a mere nick- 
name, or sobriquet, became permanently atlaclied to a person. 

See Mahudel, De I'Autorile que les Sobriquets ou Suriioms burlesques peuvent avoir dans I'histoire, in llie Mem. Mead, h^scr 

irol. xiv. p. 181. On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see Schbll's Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iv. p. 367, and references there 

I'wen.— Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxi. — Boiiidin, Les noins des Roniaii.s, in the Mem. Acad, hiicr. i. \b4.—Port 

Ruyal Latin Gram. bk. viii. ch. 1. — Cf. Caslalio, Oe aiitiquis Puerorum PrsEnoniimbus, in Grxvhts, vol. ii. On ilie subject of the 

•aces (geiiles), see Niehluhr''s Rome, i. 234. — Maidens Hist, of Rome. — Cbttliiig, as cited ^ 242. 

§312. The increase of these races was much promoted by marriages, in 
regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete separation between 
plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Marriage was held to be a duty of 
every Roman, and those who neglected it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. 
Citizens were forbidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially 
granted. Certain degrees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting 
marriage. Marriage took place at an early ajje among the Romans, the male 
being sometimes hnX fourteen and the female only in the tioelflh year. 

1 u. The jus Quiritium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marrying a 
free-born woman, 'i'o freedmen this was prohibited, until the enactment of the 
Poppaean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators' and their sons, 
were allowed to marry the daughters of freedmen. 

The Lex Popia Poppcea was an enlarsinp and enforcement of the Lex Julia " </e maritandis ordi- 
pibus ;" by it, whoever in the city had three children, in other parts of Italy four, and in the 
provinces _^t'e, was entitled to certain privileges; while certain disabilities were imposed on 
Ihose who lived in celibacy. This subject is alluded to by Horace, Carni. Sec. vs. 20. 

2. A legal marriage was termed Justcp, NuplicB, or Juatum Matrimoiiium. The word 
ro7inuhium was used as a comprehensive term including all the conditions requisite to 
the contracting of a legal marriage. Generally it may be stated that there was con- 
nubium only between Roman citizens. There was no connubium between slaves, but 
only what was cd^\edi contuhernium. 

See Gierig, Excursus de Coutuberniis Romanorum, in Lemaire's Pliny, as cited P. V. § 470. 4. vol. 2d. p. 231. — ..iyrer. Diss, de 
jure connubiorum apud Ronianos. Gott. 1737. 

§ 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or betroth- 
ment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent {stipulatio) to the request 
(sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact and the ceremonies attending it 
were called sponsalt'a ; it often took place niany years before the marriage, even 
in the childhood of the parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always pre- 
sent at the betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by 
an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was necessary 
only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The mutual consent of 
the parties was the most essential. Friends and relations were usually present 
as witnesses; the marriage contract was written and sealed {legilimx tabellse) ; 
the bride received from her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the 
whole ceremony was concluded with a feast. 

§ 314. In fixing the day of marriage, care was taken to select one of those 
esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transferrence of the bride from her father's 
power to the hands of the husband was called conventin in manuni, and was 
accompanied by a religious, ceremony, and a sort of consecration by a priest 
(cimfarrea/io). Marriages contracted in this form were the most solemn, and 
eould not be dissolved so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes 
are montioned ; one was by prescription (usiis), the bride being taken home an(f 
'iving with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a purchase (c.w 



»». III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. CHILDREN. 2S7 

emptiu), in which each party gave to the other a portion of money, repeating 
certain words. 

^ 315 M. On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a son of veil or pe- 
cuhar ornament of the head (Luteum Jlammeurn), and a robe prepared tor the occasion 
[tunica recta), which was bound around ihe waist with the marriage girdle {cinguluitt 
laneum). '1 he sacrifice ordered on ihe marriage-day was a sheep of two years ot age, 
presented especially to Juno as the goddess ot marriage. 

The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took place in 
the evening, was attended likewise wiih ceremonies. She was taken, as it were 
forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not living, of the next 
near relative. She went with a disiaff (coins) in her hand, and was caretul to step 
over or was hfted over the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it 
with. the teet. She was supported by two youth, one on each side; a third preceded 
her with a lighted torch or tiambeau, and sometimes a fourth toUowed carrying in a 
covered vase {cunierum) the bride's utensils {nvhentia utensilia) and also various toys 
icrepundia). She bound ihe door posts of her new residence with white woollen fil- 
lets and anointed them with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unxor). She then 
stepped tipon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud tor the bride- 
groom, who immediately came and oflered her the key of the house, which she de- 
hvered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of 
purity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands ot flowers, 
the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet (copna nup- 
tialis) was held, which was accompanied with music and song.. '1 he husband after 
supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were con- 
ducted to the bed-chamber, by the door of which (he nuptial hymns (epithalamia) 
were sung by young men and maids. '1 he next day the bride presented a thank- 
offering to the gods, and the husband gave an evening entertainment (repotia), and 
distributed presents to the guests on their departure. 

§ 316. Divorces {divorlia) were, especially in latter times, quite common. 
When the espousals and the marriage had been solenmized in full formality, 
especially with the confarreatio just described, particular solemnities were requi- 
site for a divorce, and these were called diffarreatio. In case of a less formal 
mai riage contract, the divorce was called remanci'patio or usurpatio. On 
ace )unt of the frequent abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law; and pro- 
perly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula with which one dismissed 
his wife was tuas res libi habeto. Sometimes the separation took place before 
marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called repudium ,• the custor .ary 
formula was as follows : conditirmt lua mm ulor. If a woman was dive iced 
without having been guilty of adultery, her portion or dowry was returned 
with her. 

The situation of the Roman woman after marriage was in some respects better than that of the 
Greek woman. The Roman inatron pn^sided over Ihe household ; she superinleiided the eJiica- 
tion of lier children (cf. P IV. $ 125); as tieinfr the niatefawilias, she shared in tiie hoimys paid 
to the husband. Yet, generally speaking, the condition of females among the Romans was simi- 
lar to their condition in Greece. The social elevation enjoyed by females in modern times is 
very justly ascribed in a great degree to Christianity. 

See § ISI, and references there given. On the rt-gaid to Itie sex as illustrated by the writings of Tihullus, Ovid, iscneci, &c. ci. 

Ramdohr, Venus Urania. Lips. 1798. 8. On the influence of Christianity, see Bnckminster''s Sermons — Ctis/iiiig, Social Infli • 

ence of Christianity, in EiLI. Rtpos. Sec. Series, vol. i. p. 195.— Cf. P. IV. § 83 2. 

§ 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of children, that 
was the most remarkable which left it to the arbitrary will of the lather whether 
to preserve his new-born child or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision 
of this point, the midwife always placed it on the ground ; if the father chose 
to preserve it, he raised it from the ground, and was said toUere ivfanfem ,- this 
was an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his own. 
If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child onthe ground, and thus 
expressed his wish to expose it (exponere); this exposing was an unnatural 
custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which children were left in the streets, 
particularly at the cnhimna laclaria^ and abandoned to their fate. Generally the 
power of the father was very great, but the mother had no share therein. This 
power extended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three 
times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and rtpprrpriate all his gains as 
his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of its rigor, by the regc 
lation allowing the children to hold the inheritance left by their mothers. 

^ 318 u. The freeing of a son from 'he power ot a father was effected by what va» 



288 ROMAN ANTKiUITIES. 

called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son ; the freedom cor, 
sequent upon this was termed mamimissio iegilima per vi?idictam. The father and the 
son appeared together with the pretended purchaser, a friend of the first, and with a body 
of witnesses, before the tribunal of the proeior, and here the imaginary thrice repeated 
sale and thrice repeated manumission was completed with certain established usages, 
sometimes by only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the 
purchaser was called paler fiduciarius ; in the first two, dominus. — The power of the 
father c ver his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or banishment 
of the father; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman citizen {'^ 260). By 
emancipation the son became his own master, and possessor of his own property, 
of which, however, he must give the father half as an acknowledgment tor his 
freedom. 

§ 319. Another custom amongr the Romans in respect to children was that of 
adoplitm (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced his own 
rights and claims, and committed them to another who received the child as 
his own. 

1 u. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. The 
formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always presupposed 
in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son was sold to the 
adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to the real lather. There 
was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or testament {adopt io per testament um), 
in order to preserve a family from extinction. In such case the person adopted re- 
ceived a considerable part of the estate left by the person adopting him, and bore his 
name after his death. 

2 t. That, which was called adrogatio or arrogatio, differed from adoption only in 
the formalities connected, and in the circumstance that the person adopted was pre- 
viously his own master {sui juris) and not in the power of his actual father. The 
adrogatio was not transacted, as was the adoplio, before the praetor, but before the as- 
sembled people, in the Comiiia Curiata, and by the aid of the High-priest ; neither 
was it Umited to individuals, but often included a whole family. Upon the consent of 
the people to the arrangement, the person or persons adopted into a family took a 
solemn oath, that they would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; 
this was called detestatio sacrorum, as the adopted person lost the peculiar rights and 
was freed from the pecuHar duties {sacra gentilitia) of his former gens (cf. ^ 311), if 
different from the one into which he was now introduced. 

^ 320 u. By what was called legitimation, a natural {naturalis) or spurious {spurius) 
child was declared to be legitimate {legitimics) , and instated in all the rights of such. 
This affected, however, the relation of the child only to the father, and not to other 
relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance 
an equal portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to the 
early Romans ; it came first into practice in the fifth century under Thei dosius the 
second, and then scarcely at all in Rome itself, but in the municipal towns, where it 
was introduced to supply the want of the decuriones or members of the senate (cf 
^ 260. 2). For, as this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was 
also very burdensome, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by 
(hem legitimated. 

§ 321. The education of the Roman youth is noticed particularly in treating 
of the Archaeology of Roman Literature (cf. P. IV. §§ 123-125). Here we 
only remark, that for a long time there were no public schools, but the youth 
-eeeived the necessary instruction from private or family teachers (paedagooriy 
There were, however, those who in their houses gave instruction to a number of 
youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, were 
viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in education than the study 
of literature and science. They did not neglect, however, an early cultivation 
of the manners, and of noble feelings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and 
heroic courage. 

§ 322 /. The household of a Roman was collectively termed familia; but by 
this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which there was often a 
large number. Persons in opulent circumstances had them sometimes to the 
amount of several thousands. The Roman women of rank usually had a nu- 
merous body of servants of, both sexes. — T'he slaves of a family were divided 
mto different classes or decurise, according to their employments, and a particu- 
.ar registry of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every 
morning. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as mere chat 
''e\% rather than persons. 



p. Ill DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES 280 

" Slaves in Rome occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate superin- 
tending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious vice; 
from the toster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest degradation to which 
woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the galleys, or labored 
on the pubHc works. Some were lictors ; some were jailors. Executioners were 
slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich 
palace in the city ; and slaves performed all the drudgery of the farm. Nor was it 
unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself 
was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry-andrew was a slave. '1 he physi- 
cian, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader 
and the stage-player ; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and the smith ; 
the weaver and the shoemaker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pan- 
tomime and the singer ; the ropedancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The 
armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agri- 
culture, manufacturing industry, or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of 
slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were 
retailers; slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves." 

The following is a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequently 
mpiitioned : — 1. Of those employed in ihe house. The serrus adtniasioTialis received the persons 
who visited the master of the house, announced their names, and conducted them in ; the servi 
cubicularii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, often enjoying the particular confidence of 
the master; the tonsores and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the heard and hair of the 
masters ; the awanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the avaffvostcp were readers ; 
the vestiarii attended to the wardrobe; the balneatnres waited upon the master at Ihe baih; the 
medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; the vulriiii and fadagngi took care of 
the children. — A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon table at meals, and were 
designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the servus lectistemiaior, couch- 
spreader ; structor, -Arranger of dishes; carptor or scissor, carver ; rfir?ftzf«r, distributer ; prwgus- 
tator, latter ; pocillator. ciip-hearer ; defensor, table-wiper, &.c. — There were others performing 
another kind of house-service, e. g. the senuis ostiarius, door-kec^per ; atriensis, hall slave ; dispen- 
satiir, or a rear ins, keeper of the slores; cellarius, pantry-keeper; pulmentarijis, potlage-maker; 
dulciarius, confectioner ; tcediger^ torch-bearer ; cunaria, cradle-rocker ; cosmeta, perfumer ; Jlu- 

bellifer, fan-carrier, &c. 2. Others were employed out of doors ; the serous iusularis, who had 

the oversight over his master's buildings; t\\e servus a pedibus, who went wvh errands; the 
?ec<icarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c. — A large number of slaves were kept at the marmrs 
a country-seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits; among these were the riWicJ. stewards or 
superintendents; arufores, plowmen ; rjtricafcT-es, weed-pullers ; uccatores, c\()(i breakers ; /ccrti- 
sectores, hay-cutiers; vindevtintores, viiua^^ers ; jugtirii, ox-drivers; opiliones, sheep-tenders; 
piscatores, fish-catchers; muliones, mule-drivers; gaUinarii, hen-keepers, &c. 

for a full list, see fitoir's Stale of Slavery atimng Ihe Romans. F.dinb. 1^33. 8 Of. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. xv. 71. On the 

employment of slaves, see A Popma. De Operis Servorum — L. Pignorrus. l)e Servis et eoruni apud Veleres minir.leriis. Palav. 
1656. 4 — Mongiz. sur les travaux piibl. des Roinains, in the Mem. de Vlmtitut, C 1 a s se de Lit. et Beaux Arts, i. 492. 

§ 323. The slave-trade formed amon^ the Romans, as with most of the 
ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave merchants (venah'tiarn) 
were always found attached to the Roman armies, and importers of slaves 
{mangones) often came to Rome from Greece and Asia. There were various 
laws regulating this traffic; which, however, were often left unexecuted, or 
were evaded by the arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves 
offered for sale, scaffolds {catasiae) were erected in the market, and commonly 
small tablets or scrolls (J.ituli') were suspended from the necks of the slave.s, 
staling their country, age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it. was 
sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as pos- 
sessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as teachers, readers, 
accountants, musicians, and the like. 

One thousand denarii would equal (cf $ 270. 3) about one hundred and fifty dollars. In the 
time of Horace (Sat. II. vii. 43) a fair price for an o/dinary slave seems to have been about half 
that sum. In the time of Justinian the legal valuation of a common slave was twentysolidi,i. e. 
five hundred denarii, or about seventy-five dollars But vastly higher prices are mentioned; 
e.\g. beautiful boys are said to have been sold for as much as two hundred thousand sesterces, 
or fifty thousand denarii (cf. Mart. iii. 6; viii. 13. Plin. H. N. vii. 39, 40). 

^ 324 u. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most anrien* 
mode seems-'o have been by will, manumissio p?r testament um, on the decease of the 
master. There were two other modes; censu, and per v indict am ; the former wa^ 
when the slave, with the master's consent, was enrolled in the taxation list as a freed- 
man ; the latter was a formal and public enfranchisement before the praetor. In the 
last case, the master appeared with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the 
ceremony by striking mm with a rod (vindicta) ; thus treating him as still his slave. 
Then a protector or defender (assertor Uhertatis) steps forward and requests the libe- 
ration of the slave, by saying linnc hominem liberum ease aio, jure Qviritium ; upon 
which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e mnnu emii- 
'ebat), and gives up his right over him, with the words, hu7ic hominem liberum €?>*■ 



^90 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

volo. A declaration by the praetor, that the slave should be free, formed the conclu- 
Bion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and 
received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. "^^ 91. .5) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of 
liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person 
setting him free under thirty. 

We may here remark, that on the country farms there was a class of population termed eolovi^ 
who were not slaves, although sometimes termed servi terra. They were attached to the soil, 
and cnuld not he separated from it; the land and the coloni could be sold together, but neither 
of them could be sold without the other. The coloni, like slaves, were liable to corporeal punish- 
ment ; but they had the right of connvbium (cf $ 312 2), which slaves had not. The colonus paid 
a yearly rent for the land on which he lived. 

On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting article in the Biblical Repositmy and Q^art. Observer, No. xx. Oct. 
IS35 — Burigny, Roman Slaves and Freedmen, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 32!<, and xxxvii. p. \\3.— Blair, cited § 322, 
— Becker's G^llua. 

§ 325. The dv^^ellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casas), and 
durincr the first three centuries, even to the capture and piimder of the city by 
the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. IV. § 241). On its being rebuilt, 
they were larger and more respectable. As luxury increased, especially after 
the second Punic war, so the private dwellings {domus) became more and more 
costly and splendid, both within and without; although this was not universally 
the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extrava* 
gance in the building and ornamenting of houses. 

1 u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the fol- 
lowing; the covering of the outer and inner walls wiih marble; the use oi' phengifes 
{(peyyiTris) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, which was com 
monly employed for windows; mosaic work on the floors {pavimenta tesselata); and 
various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the 
walls, ceiling, and door-posts. 

2. The phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia 
in the lime of Nero, and toojj this name from its translucency. — The lapis spccularis was found 
in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, like stale, 
not above five feet long each. Boyd remarks, quoting the Frencli translation of J3dam, "It ap- 
pears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." Lauvay (cited P. IV. $ 195. 2), 
after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expresses in the following words 
his conclusion : "que !e lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillet6 appelle Selcnite." 
(vol. i. p. 314). 

3. Windows made of this stone were termed specularin ; it has been supposed that these were 
chiefly in the better houses^. — Horn is said to htve been used by the Romans for the windows 
(corneum speculare); also paper and linen cloth. Originally the windows were mere openings 
( foramina, fene.xtrcB) ; sometimes covered with a sort of lattice (clathri); sometimes closed by 
nteans of shutters with two leaves (bifores fenestra). It has not been generally supposed that 
glass (cf 268. 4) was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for 
windows until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass windows (viirea specula- 
ria), is said to be by Lactantius (De opificio Dei, 8) or by Jerome, in the fourth century*; although 
mirrors (specula) of glass were mucli earlier. But glass windows have been discovered^ in the 
buildings at Pompeii. " In the vaulted roof (of a rooni of the thermce or baths) is a window, two 
feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, 
two-fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the 
roof from looking into the bath: of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is 
an evident proof that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The learned seem to have 
been generally mistaken on the subject of glass-making among the ancients. The vast collection 
of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the 
ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." It has been suggested, that these 
vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from 
Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first mad(;. Another room belonging t» 
the satne baths "was lighted by a window two feet six inches high and three feet wide, in the 
bronze frame of which were found set four very beautiful paves of glass fastened by small nuts 
and screws, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure." 

1 /. M. Suarcsius, De Foraminibus bpidum in priscis jTIdificiis, in Sallengre, as cited § 197. vol. i "^ Beckmann, History of 

iBventions, cited P. IV. § 32. 1. — Cf. Vogel, Geschichte der Erfindungen von der illeslen bis zur neuesteu Zeit. Leipz. IS-II. 12. 
3 Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. p. 162. Cf. also § 268. 4 

4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (laqtiearia) on the ceilings, were among the 
decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments were frequently of a character exceed- 
ingly unfavorable to purity of mind. 

On architectural ornaments, &c. cf. P. IV. § 239.— On the mosaic of the ancients, P. IV. §§ 167, 189, 220. 

5 u. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much bet- 
ter than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (1) The 
■vestibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house-door and the street. From 
'Lis, one entered through the door or gate {janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the 
atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in 
niches or cases (urmaria). From this, one passed directly through into (3) the implu- 
vinm i called also compluvium and cavccdium, which was a court, commonly uncovered 
tvhdLvule^ where the rain-water fell. In this was the proper dwelUnff-house. which 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. 201 

had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed 
from one apartment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the 
principal was (4) the triclinium or dining-room; the olhers were termed cdlcB, havino 
distinctive names from their u?e ; as celta vinariu, coquinaria, penuaria, dec. Besides 
these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages ; colonnades, 
baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments were on the lower 
floor; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly occupied by tenants on 
lease (and called insulcB), were higher and had more stories. 

As the populatiou of Rome increased, the houses in the eity were raised to such altitudes as to occasion danger, and a tnaximum o( 
height was established by law ; in the reign of Augustus it was enacted, thai the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy 
feet from the ground.— Gi'ifion, vol. 3d. p. 216, ed. N. Y. 1S22. 

C. The gate or door (janna) was sometimes made of iron or brass, often Itijrhly ornainented, 
and usually raised above the ground, so that steps wf re necessary to ascend to it. On festival 
occasions it was hung with green branches and garlands. It turned on hinges (caT-rfJHes), and was 
secured hy bars (nbices, claust.ru), loci<3 {serce), and keys {cluves). Knocliers (marculi, mallei) or 
bells (tintinvabula) were attached to it. 

Fig. a, of Plate XXXII. represents a key found at Pompeii. — Fig. b, of the siine Plate, is a door-bolt, found also at Ponipsii. ^ 

In the utrivvi was ancit^ntly the kitchen (evlina). Here also the mistress of the house and 
servants carried on the spinning and weaving In this was the family hearth (focus), nenr the 
door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf P. II. $ 111) around it. The Roman houses, 
as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roof to let 
off the smoke ; hence the epithet /?/7//oave applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as 
much as possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil : yet it is said that 
chimneys have been found in the ruins of ancinnt buildings'. Portable hearths or furnaces 
(foculi), in which charcoal was burnt, were used for vvarining the different afiarlments; a sort 
of stove (carnbius), in which wood was usually burnt, was also used, larger than the furnace or 
brasier, and fixed in one place. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace below, with 
pipes passing from it to the rooms*. — The atrium was sometimes divided, in later times, into dif- 
ferent parts separated by curtains. 

» Becker^s Callus, i. 102. Cf. Har. Sat. I. v. 81.— rilrwu vii. 3. — ^ Beckmnnn, Hist of Inventions. Cf. Plin. Ep. ii. 17.— 
Sen." Ep. 90. 

In the open court, or impluviam, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The a[tartinents around 
if, excepting the dininjg room, were usually small and ill constructed, and properly called cells. 
Those designed for sleeping were termed cabicula. The tablin urn whs the ro(un for the family 
records or archives. The pivacotheca was the gallery for pictures. The solarium was a room on 
the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof was protected by large tiles (tefrutip), and 
was generally of an angular form; the highest part was called /'/s/ia-i?/7H, a term also used to 
designate the whole roof — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellaria), 
which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases do not appear to 
have been considered ofniuch consequence; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii. 

In Plate XXXII. fig. 1, is the plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Architecture as 
according to Vitriivius : " « is the vestibvlvni ; b. the atrium ; c, the tablimim ; d, d, the alse ; e, e, 
cellae familiaricae ; /. cavaedium ; ^, vernal I'iclinium ; p, summer triclinium; /?■» winter tricli- 
nium; Hi, baths; kkJc, cubiculse; m. pinacoiheca ; ?», bibliotheca ; o, peristyle; q, Cy/.icene 
oecus ; r r, courts of the offices; s, exedra; t t, gardens; m, rooms for embroidery; v v, sudato- 
ries." 

On the Roman house, cf. Wilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, citrd P. IV § 243. 4 — /. Minutolus, de Roman, domihus, in SnllOtgre, 
cited § 197.— f?-. M Gmpaldi rie partlbiis ^Idiuni liber. Farm. 1506. 4—Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunsi, cited P, IV. § 243. 4 — 
JUazois, Ruines de Pompei. —iWe)-auir, Le Palais de Scaurus, ou Description d'une Maison Roniaine. Par. 1822. 8. — Simtfi, Diet, 
of Antiquities, p. 494. 

7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs (sella), tables {me7tS(E) 
couches (lecfl). lamps {lucerncB), &c. ; besides the numerous utensils for culinary 
purposes (cf. '^ 329. 3), and articles pertaining to the bathing-room and the toilet (cf. 
^ 338). 

Several varieties of tables are mentioned ; as the caZ/i6a, a round table with three legs; the 
vionopodiiim ; the fijrma or vievsa hivaia, &c (cf $ 329. 2).— Chairs of different forms have been 
discovered in the excavations at Pompeii, and other varieties are represented in the fresco paint- 
ings. — Among the couches were those used at meals, accvbita, or leeti tricliviares (cf $ 329. 2); 
and the lecti cubiculares or beds for sleeping; the latter had costly frames, sometimes of metal, 
with feet (fulcra) sometimes of silver, bearing a m^tress or bed of feathers (ndrita, torus), with 
rich coverings (vestes stracrulw, peri-pel asviata, peristromatu conchyliala). — A great number of 
ancient lamps have been found, particularly at Ilerculanenm and Pompeii ; of various forms and 
sizes, and different materials, from the most common to the most costly ; many of them, espe- 
ciallv those in bronze, are of the most beautiful workmanship. They were wrought into th« 
most whimsical images and shapes; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or su« 
pended from the ceilings. 

Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXXII. at the bottom ; m >o9 1 
and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch Uychnucus); in Nos. 2 and 4, they are placed 
upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella) called candelabrum. Fig. 
d is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. 

H. H. Baler, Antique Vases, I^mps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1?36. 4. co taining one hundred and sevet.iy plates engraved by 
H. Moses; with descriptions.— See also Mmtfaucon (a» cited P. V. § 13), vol. v. p. 202.— U AxUchi d'Brcolauo. cite! P. IV. 
5 243. 2. one vol. of which treats paiicularly on this subject.— The Muieo Borbonico (cited P. IV. § 212), contains represenUiiou* 
of very tasteful ancient chairs. 

^ 326. Th€ villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splendid usually 
rhan the houses within the city. A complete estabhshment of this kind included s6v«* 



892 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ral parts. 1. The villa urhana was the chief edifice, wi. its courts, buths, porticcs, 
and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. '1 he villa ruslica was ilie name applied 
to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward ivillicus), and numerous slaves 
of the establishment ; and those for various kinds of hve stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for 
hens; aviarium, for bees; suile, for swine, &c. 3. The villa frucluo'-ia was another 
part, including the structures designed for storing the various products of the farm; 
as wine, corn, oil, and fruits; often comprehended under villa rustica. 4. The horlus 
was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed: being planted 
with trees, shrubs, and flowers, which were often turned into fantastic shapes by 
slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts; adorned 
with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort oi pirk, of many acres, 
chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophium, in which was the fish- 
pond {piscina) and the oyster-bed {vivarium). 

Many of these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. Cicero 
had a beautiful one at Tusculum, besides several in other places further from the city (cf Mid- 
dleton^s Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, 
and Laurentiim ; the Piscina Mir abilis. a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows 
of arcades, tinder the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond of 
this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii 128.) In his Tuscuian villa he had a 
sinijle pR\nt\ug, the ^rffovuuts, by Cy/rfms, for which he paid, according to Plitiy (Nat. Hist.xxxv. 
12), 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above $'5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tihur, not 
so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (^Anthori's Remarks in his ed. of 
Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to himself at Laurentum, 
of great extent and grandeur. {Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.)— But the villa of the empe- 
ror Adrian, near Tivoli, was probably the most magnificent ever erected ; its buildings and 
plantations covered an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference; its ruins have 
survived to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient art. (Cf. 
P. IV. $$ 173, 188. — Stuart's Diet.) — Ruins, called the Villa of LucuUas, have beeti discovered at 
the extreme point of Pausilypus (cf. P. I. $ 42), in ground used for vineyards, two feet below the 
surface; the buildings are said to have been found in good order. {Gent. Ma^. Ap. 18t2.) — The 
excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the walls of the 
place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a livelv description of it in Johnson's 
Philos. of Trav. p. 235, as cited P. IV. $ 190.) 

Rob. CasteU, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated Lond. t72S. fol.— Suteer'j Tlieorie, i. 305.— G. Grenius, De Rusticatiohe 

Romanorum, in Sallengre, cited § 197. vol. i. On remains of Roman villas discovered in England, Archxolosia, (as cited P. IV. 

i 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 363. vol. xviii. p. 2C3, ?.nd xix. 176, with plans. 

§ 327. The manner of life among- the Romans undeiwent many changes in 
the course of their history. In the early periods these were favorable to their 
morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted 
its influence on their. feelings, and these aflected their private life and manners, 
their purstiits, social character, and amusements. At first, and even down to 
the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterized by simplicity in 
thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifica- 
tion of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. From their 
primitive rudeness, they, gradually advanced in refinement and urbanity, and 
fre long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted 
with the conveniences and pleasures of the people they conquered, especially 
the Greeks and Asiatics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in 
consequence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in 
private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, 
now appeared eflfeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings, 
luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments, 
followed of course. 

§ 3-28. It is not easy to decide what was certainly a uniform course of daily 
avocations, annong a people presenting a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and 
manner of life. There was, however, a sort of regular routine in the succession 
of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respect- 
able and orderly citizens. 

1 u. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or 
their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed 
to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially clients upon their patrons. 
About the third hour (cf. ^ 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assem- 
blies were commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for plea- 
sure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and oiher public places. About th« 
gixrh hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take 
a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, 

n visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ni'ith or tenth hour 

vas the usual t'l^ie for the evening meal. 



p. III. DOAiESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 293 

2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named, $ 326).— "The 
piivale houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at oi.ce how the 
people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open coiirt of ihe house — while the 
masters assembled, and might be said to live, in Ihe public porticos and public hotels of the city ! 
Such was the state of society among the ancients ; and if we examine the cafes and oiher public 
places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, at tJit- present 
day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect has not essentially changed. How the 
women and children contrived to pass iheir time at home, while their husbands and lathers were 
lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say : but if we may 
judge by the fitiures and devices (m their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, ai d 
walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narr(»wand darksome cells, the pruriency (1 dare 
not use the proper term) of their minds was at least commensurate with the inactivity of their 
bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." 

See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. 1) of the manner in which his friend Spuriuna was accustomed to spend the day. 

Mbe Cuuntre, La vie privee des Romains, as cited § 310. 

3. The customary time of day for bathing, both at the public rAe?-7/t« (cf. P. IV. $241 b and the 
more private balnea, was between two o'clock and dusk. Between two and three o'clock was 
considered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed 
at dusk; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until five o'clock in the eveni:>g. The 
price paid for admissioii was a ^^a^'ra/is or quarter ot an a* ," the charge f^r entrance was in- 
creased a hundred-fold after four o'clock. — Nero's baths were healed by twelve o'clock; and 
Severus allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the niglit, in summer. 
The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empire to Con- 
stantinople ; after which no new thermae were erected, and the old gradijally fell into decay. A 
description of the buildings constructed ("or bathing is given under the topic of Architeciiire (cC' 
P. IV. $ 241 b) ; to which we must refer for an explanation of the names of rooms or aparlmenfs 
that occur in the following account of the customs connected with baihii g. — " Those who went 
to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium, w her f they took oflTtheir clothes and committed them 
to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer (balveator). Thence 
they proceeded to the unctuariiim, where they were anointed by other s-laves {alipUn). Thence 
they proceeded to the sphcBrhterium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From 
this room, they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot bath in the latter room they sat upon a 
bench or seat {pulvinua) below the surface of the water in the basin Here they scraped them- 
selves with instruments called strigiles. usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation 
was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred 
t-hat the bathers, after the use of the strieilie, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were 
washed from liead to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over ihem. 'I'hey were then 
dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle called ^om- 
sape. On quitting the caldarium, they went to the tepidariuin, and after soiiie delay, thence into 
the frig-idarium ; hut are supposed not generally to have bathed in these at the public thermae 
but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heal of the ( aldaritim to 
the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the I ody with the perl'umed 

oils of the eZffiytAesium, after which the clotlies left in the apodijterium were resumed." It is 

worthy of remark, that the exercise oi sicimvuv^ was cnnnecied with the custom of bathing. 
" This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they 
wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that 
he -neither kveic how to read nor sicivi, a phrase corresponding with our lamiliar oi.e, that a per- 
son knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gynmasia and 
palaestrae, were schools for swimming; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their pri- 
vate houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." 

Bell, as ciie.J P. IV. \ 241 h. — Atneilfimi, sur I'exerci e du nagtur chez les auciens, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 1 1. 
nd \1. p. 96. 

§ 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal {prandium) was very 
frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it; and in the better 
times of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon were regarded as 
effeminate. The fifth hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, was the 
time assigned for it. 

The principal meal was held at evening (coena), and for this, particularly, the 
guest-chambers or eating-halls {triclinia) were constructed, which in the palaces 
and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called, 
from the use made of them, cocna/iunes ; and among the lower classes, ccenacula. 

1 u. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches, 
each with three pillows, on which to support the ann ni reclining. JNine persuiis 
(<> 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the midriie couch or sola 
was called locus conmlaris. Ohen seven places only were prepared, the wholt oi the 
middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. 
Women were not accustomed to recline at table, but to sit. 

2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed at the 
head of the table was called mediits hcivs, while the remaining couch on the left was 
termed iymis lectus. ""i he post of honor on each was the central place, ihose who oc 
cupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus sum- 
mi lecti, -primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecti. '1 he most honorable ot these tinee 
places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, usually wa.s the primus medii 
lecti. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch tarihest from that called 
medius. As the guests al rechned on the same (ihe left) arm, the homes of .hose o? 



294 ROMAN ANTIQUITI18. 

the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the 
left from, the middle couch. — The couch-frames {spondcB) and their supports {fulcra) 
were of wood, ivory, or sometimes metal; sometimes they were veneered with tor 
toise-shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing {tomeiilam) of wool, 
feathers or the like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth {siragida) often 
of rich embroidery and purple dye. — The tables {nie?iscB) were often highly orna- 
mented. The mouopoditim, was circular, with one foot ; chiefly used by the sick ; the 
tripes {Hor. Sat. i. iii. 13) of the poorer people had three feet, 'i'he mensu lunula was 
a semicircular table, accommodating usually seven or eight persons, used under the 
emperors ; it was called sigma from its resemblance in form to the letter C ; the 
term stibadmm designated the couch or sofa which surrounded it. 

In Plate XXXV. fig. I, we have the ground pl;in of a suriuiier triclinium in the small garden of 
the hou!=e of Salliist, found at Pompeii; nnd also a view of the cou< hes and the lahle in the 
center. In this plan, A designates the suvimus lectns; B, the medins; C, the imus. The couches, 
in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushion-^ and tapesiry. The 
round table in the center was of marble. — In fig. 5, of the same Plate, also from Pompeii, we see 
& splendid lectus, with a cushion and richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar). 

3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels (jnantilia) 
for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping 
the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food (cibicm) there were 
various articles of furniture, as dishes {Iruices, palrincB) and the like ; but nothing like 
our fork, it is supposed (cf. P. IV. ^ 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have 
shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been consi- 
dered as modern inventions. 

"The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy 
and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Porj-peii, where they slept 
since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natu- 
ral, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost mira- 
culous preservation of these objects durins so many centuries. We are astonished (though I 
know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their 
names on the loaves — that the cooks \v\A pots, slew-pans, colanders, molds for Christmas-pies 
and twelfth cakes — that the aldermen and gormands stowed Iheir wines at the greatest distance 
from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves fur supplying mulled wines to theii 
guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of ' doctor's stuff,' a box of pdls remain- 
ing to this day, gilt, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's 
room displayed a terrific * armament nvi chirurgicuvi^ of torturing instruments; among r.Jhers, 
' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in thp Strand — that the female toilets disclosed 
rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's foot to lay them gracefully on tl'.e p.illid 
cheek — that the tnasters and mistresses had little hells to summon the slaves (for servants there 
were none), and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn cart? 
and wheelbarrows from enteritig the strt-ets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same 
time — that play-bills, quack advertisements, notices of siehts, shows, &c., were pasted up at the 
corners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin— that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though 
at a lower price than 8s. 6(Z. — that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian 
who came within the vortex of the Pompeian gaminsr-table — that horses had bits in their mouths, 
stirrups at their sides, cruppers on Iheir rumps, though the two latter are onilted in statues, for 
the benefit of antiquarian disquisitions — that windows were glazed when light vvas preferred to 
air, which was rarely the case-^that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their bowl- 
ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals — that the public houses had checkers painted on 
their walls, as at present— that the chimist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pine- 
apple, symbolical of prudence defeating death — that the Pompeian ladies employed male accouch- 
eurs, who had all the implements of their art nearly similar to Ihose of the modern men mid- 
wives — that the houses were numbered, and the names of the occupants painted on the walls — 
that, in the public tribunals, the mairistrates protested to Heaven that they would decide covsci- 
entiously, while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but trvlh — 
that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where 
officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their passions and 
propensities, their cares and their enjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into flame !" {^John- 
son, before cited ) 

On curi sides found al Pompeii, cf. Class. Ji urn. xv. p. 305 — Lilrnry nf Entertaining Knowledge, vols. xxiv. xxv — Pnmpeii. 

— Museo Borh-mico. For an inlerestir:g account of the luxwrious manners of the later Roman nobles, Gibbon, Dec. and Fall o( 

Rom. Emp. chip. xxxi. 

§ 330. At the stippers of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The 
first vi'as termed gusfus or gusta/io, designed to sharpen rather than to satisfy 
appetite; it consisted of ecrcrs {ova), salad, radishes, and the like. With this 
they drank usually, not wine, but mead, or a mixture of honey. The second 
course formed the essential part of the meal, and the principal dish was called 
caput coinse. The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or va*es fitted foi 
the purpose {rejxmloria). The third course was the dessert (Jbellaria), consist- 
ing of choice fruits (ma/a), pastry, and confectionery. 

1. Hence the introduction of the phrase, ah ova ad mala, from the beginning to the end of the 

•feast. Cf Horace, Sat. I. iii. 6. An account of the fare provided for a social supper, is given 

fiy Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 

2 A. ijreat number of servants were employed about the evening meal in one u'av 



p. Ill, Domestic affairs, banqlets. 295 

or another ; some of them have already been named lc{. ^ 322) ; e. g. the structor, 
who arranged the tables ; the carptor, who divided the food, &.c. In the times of 
Roman luxury, there was much demand for skilful cooks {co<iui, archimasiri). 

3. It may be proper here to advert to the Roman hospitality. The rignts of hospi 
taUty,(j«s Aos/j?7iO were highly respected; the term hospes was applied both lo the 
host and to the guest, and always indicated mutual obligations between them. 
These rights and obhgations were sometimes created between persons residing at a 
distance and even in aifferent countries, by an interchange of presents. '1 he joining 
of right hands was practiced as a sort of pledge, of this fellowship {arrha hospitalis) ; 
sometimes a sort of tally was used consisting of a piece of wood cut into two similar 
parts, of which each person kept one (tessera hospitalis) ; some of the European 
cabinets have specimens of these tessercB with the names of iriends inscribed. — The 
Romans had a custom (called mulitatio) of inviting on the next day those whom they 
had met at another person's house. 

FJ?. 4, in Plate XXXV., is a copy of a painting found at Herculaneum, which exhibits two 
persons joining hands, and one giving to tlie other the tessera. 

Cf. Class. Joum. ix. 229. x. 229. xviii. IS.—Fosbrohe (as cited § 13), p. 63«.— /. B. Casalius, De Tridiniis, Hospitalitate et Te? 
Eeris Veteruni, in GroTJOU'WS, vol ix. — /. P. Tomajniw.?, De Tesseris Hospitalitatis. Amst Ib70. 12. also in (3ro?jauii/s, vol. ix. — 
On the general subject of Roman meals, &c. /. C. BiUeyigeriis, De Conviviis, in Groncvius, vol. ix. — Cf also §§ 166-168. 

§ 331 a. In social banquets, held at evening, it was customary to choose a 
master of the feast, rex or mngisler cimvivii or arbHer hibendi ,- he seems to have 
been chosen by a throw of. dice {Hor. Od. ii. vii. 25). To his direction every 
thing connected with the banqtiet was submitted, particularly all that related to 
drinking, and the social intercourse for the time. After the completion of the 
meal, the drinking was continued late in the night. It was customary to drink 
healths, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first 
place. — Not only after the meal, but also. during it, between the different courses 
and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, especially playing with dice. 

1 u. There were two kinds of dice, tali and tesserce. The former were oblong, 
with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which they might fall, 
and which were numbered successively one {unio), six (senio), three {ternid), and four 
iqiiaternio). Four tali were used in playing ; the most fortunate throw, called Jactus 
Venereum or Venus, was when a different number was uppermost on each of the four, 
and the worst throw, called Canis, was when the same number was uppermost on all. 
The tesaercB had six sides, numbered like modern dice. Three only were used in play- 
ing ; and the best throw was three sixes, and the poorest three aces or ones. The vessel 
from which the dice were thrown, was called fritlllus or lurricula, a box in the form 
of a tower ; the board or table on which they were received, was termed forus, alveus, 
tabula lusoria. — Anolher game not so often played was called Duodena scn'pta, and 
was a kind of trick-track or backgammon. It was played with fifteen counters or 
stones (calculi) of different colors, upon a table marked with twelve lines. — In the 
general corruption of Roman manners the love of playing at games was canieu to the 
highest extreme. 

Cf. Simon, Jeux de tiazard, ctiez les Remains, in ttie Mem. Acad. Irtscr. i. 120. 

2. In the time of the Republic, it was customary for the patro' to invite all his cli- 
ents occasionally to a common supper in his halls ; this was call/:.d ca'?ia recta. Under 
4he emperors, it became customary to give to the clients, instead of a supper, a por- 
tion of food to carry home in a small basket, sportula. At length a quantity of mo- 
ney was substituted instead of this, to the amount of about 100 quadrantes. or 25 
asses, which was also called sportula. This word was also employed to designate 
sums of money distributed by orators and others for the purpose of gaining favor. 

Cf. Juv. i. 95. 118. — Mart. iii. 7. — De Mantour, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 161. 

^ 331 b. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially at their 
social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some remarks on the sub- 
ject. Scarcely any thing else seems to have been so important to the rich Roman in 
all his arrangements for domestic comfort, as to be well lurnished with choice and 
approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great attention to the cultivation of the vi?ie ; 
even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The soil of Campania was con 
sidered as perhaps the most desirable in Italy, for vineyards. Many varieties of grape 
were cultivated : about///?/ sorts are mentioned by Columella and Pliny; no expense 
was spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was common to rear thw 
vines by attaching them to certain trees {arbusta), particularly the elm and poplar, 
and the vines and trees were thus said to be married ; the vines were allowed usually 
to reach the height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes a still greater, in the rich soils ; ui 
soils less favorable, the usual height was only from 8 to 12 feet. — 2. The vintage or 
gathering of the grapes was about the last of Sep'ember, tr in October. They were 
nicked in osier baskets {fiscifice corbes) and carried direct ' to the rcom hr pressing 



296 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ytorcularium) , where they were first trodden {calcaha7itur), and then subjected to the 
press ; sometimes in order to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a 
tew days after gathering. The common wine-press (torcular) seems to have been 
simply an upright frame, in which was fixed a iDeam {prelum) loaded with weights, 
and having rop(;s attached so as to work it more easily. The juice (^muslum) passed 
through a sort of strainer {cnlum) into a vat (Lacus), in which it remained in order to un- 
dergo fermentation about nine days, or was put into large vessels {dolia) for the same 
purpose. The juice which ran from the grapes without pressing {mustum lixivium) was 
usually preserved separately, and often with much pains to avoid its fermentation; 
one mode of doing which was to secure it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a 
space of a month or more. Sometirvies the juice obtained by pressing was boiled 
down instead of being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and 
called defrutarium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one-half its original 
quantity, was termed defrutum; ihe careniim was such as had been reduced only to 
two-thirds; sapa was the name when reduced to one-third. — 3. Various means were 
employed for clarifying the fermented must ; eggs particularly were used for the pur- 
pose. Various methods were devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both 
of the fermented and the inspissated juice ; aromatic herbs and drugs of different 
kinds were introduced to effect the object. — In order to hasten the maturity of wines, 
to ripen and mellow them, they were often subjected to the action of artificial heat 
and smoke, by placing the vessels containing them in the flues of the furnaces, or in 
some room prepared for the purpose {fumarium), where the smoke for a time passed 
around them. I'hese forced wines are said to have been in great request at Rome. 
It is probable that the process tended to give the wines a thicker consistency ; 'it is 
stated that they sometimes became consolidated to such a degree that it was neces- 
sary to dissolve them in hot water. — 4. The vessel most commonly used by the Ro- 
mans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, called also quadrantal ; the terms 
testa, cadus, and diotd are applied to the same or a similar vessel. It was made of a 
sort of clay baked, and held about six gallons; — generally of an elegant form, having 
a narrow neck vAth two handles, and tapering towards the bottom, so that they might 
easily be fixed in the ground or sand of the wine-cellar, and kept in an upright posi- 
tion. The amphora was commonly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and 
aromatic substances, and was covered also with a coating made of pitch and the ashea 
of the vine. When the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover or 
stopper was confined and made perfectly close by a coating of the . same kind, or of 
plaster. Skins {utres), which were originally the only kind of vessel used for the pur- 
pose, seem also to have remained until later times. For the richer sorts oi wine, 
glass vessels appear also to have been employed ; but probably of a much smaller size 
than the earthen amphora {Martial, Ep. ii. 40). For carrying wine from place to 
place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a frame 
and hoops, seem to have been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii ex- 
hibits a vessel of this kind occupying the whole of a wagon or car with four wheels 
and drawn by two horses. — 5. The better kinds of wine were usually valued more 
highly in proportion to their age. None of the more generous wines were reckoned 
fit for drinking before the fifth year, and the majority of them were kept for a much 
longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, was that of a 
middle age ; although the older might command a higher price. The opulent Ro- 
man, as has been mentioned, attached vast importance to his wine establishment. 
Hence to the house and villa of every snch person was attached the v/me-cellar {celJa 
vi?taria). This (called also apofheca, rf. Hor. Sat. ii. v. 7) was commonly in part, if 
not wholly, under ground, and was frequently very spacious. Here the wine was 
kept, usually, in amphorcB, which were ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or 
less depth in the sand ; each one having a mark {nota) indicating the name of the Con- 
sul in office when the wine was made ; hence the phrase interior nota, signifying the 
oldest and choicest ; because such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be 
at the remote end of the cellar, or because, on account of these qualities, it was 
lodged in an inner cell or apartment. Thevillaof Diomedes(cf. $326)hasacellar very 
large, extending round and under the whole garden, and lighted and ventilated by 
port-holes from above; "some of the amphorae still stand as they were packed and 
labelled seventeen centuries ago." Among the amphorae found, some not many years 
since, at Leptis (cf. Beechif s travels), was one with the following inscription in Vermil- 
lion, L. CASSio c. MARIO COS. forming three lines on the vessel. — 6. Of the Italian wines, 
the most celebrated were the Falernian and Massic {vintim Falernum, Massicum), 
which seem to have been the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinuessa ; 
and the vinurn Setinum, the beverage of Augustus, produced on the hills of Setia. 
Others in much repute were the vinum Ccpxuhum, Surrenti?ium, Caleniim ; of a third 
rank were the Alhanum and Sahinum. The Sicilian wines were rated generally aficr 
iiese. Of foreign wines,- the Romans seemed to have placed the Lesbian, Chian, and 
Thasian, among the first; cf. ^^ 161. Different kinds of wine were used at the san e 
-auquet ; and sometimes the guests were i reated w'th different sorts according to the» 



p. III. DOMES! IC AFFAIRS. DRINKING-CUPS. COSTUMES. 207 

rank. — 7. From the fact that the wines were so often inspissated, it was common to 
dilute them for actual use, among the Romans as well as among the Greeks; for tins 
purpose warm or hot water seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was 
made in a large vase called rrater. From this it was poured or conveyed by a ladle 
(fiyathus) into cups (pocula), of which there were almost countless varieties. 

Some of the names employed to designate varieties of the drinking-rup were the following; 
ealices, phialcB, scyphi, cymbia, batiolcB. They were made of wood {fagina pocula), or of earth 
(fictilia); of glass (vitrea), and of amber (succina); also of bronze, silver, and gold, with various 
ornaments (torevmata, vasa sculpta) ; of gems or precious stones, and of the substance callr'd 
murrha (of. P. IV. $ 195. 4). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great skill in 
workmanship. 

In our Plate XXXV. are seen a number of the vessels connected with tlie ancient use of wine. 
Fig. a is a jar filled with grapes, copied from paintings on the walls of an edifice found at Pom- 
peii and called the Pantheon. — Fig. 6 is drawn from an Egyptian monument ; and shows a mode 
of obtaining the juice by treading on the grapes collected in a vat.— Fig. 2 is copied from the 
painting mentioned above as found at Pompeii; it shows a mode of carrying wine about for 
sale; a slave is filling an amphora from the leathern vessel in the carriage, and another slavt 
holds a second amphora to be filled. — Figs. 6, c, and d, are wine-vessels, from Egyptian monu- 
irients; c very exactly resembling the Roman amphora; and b, a form still in actual use in 
Egypt for water.— Figs. e,f,g,i, represent glass vessels found at Pompeii ; A is probably a drink- 
ing-cup.— Figs, n and o are also drinking-vessels ; n is the drinking-horn, Kepa^, pvrov ; several 
Rpecimens have been found at Pompeii; o may illustrate the Greek crater; cf. Boyd's Potter, 
p. 699. — Fig. 7 shows two elegant glass cups which seem to have been cut, or else cast in a mold. 
— Fig. 5 presents, in the hand of the Bacchanal, a cup of another form, probably the calix, kvXi^; 
wine-vessels also appear on the small table which stands by the splendid cuuch on which he 
reclines with a garland on his head and the thyrsus in the other hand ; a monument from Pom- 
peii. — Fig. 3 is a vessel of form like one of those seen on the table of the Bacchanal, given on a 
larger scale, and showing its ornaments; it represents the patera, often used in libations. 

Cf. Pownall, on a Ron:an " drinkin?-cup wrought of solid crystal," Jrcfixolo^in, cited P. IV. ^ 32. 5. vol. vii p. ISO. On the 

topics of the above section, f{endersu7i's History of Wines, cited § 161. — E. Barry, On 'he Wines of the Ancieiils. Lond. 1775. 4. 

A. Ttirnebus, De Vinn ac ejus Usu et Abusu, in Gronovius, vol ix.— .i. Saccus, De Conviviis Velerum, in Grmiovius, vol. ix.— 
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv.—Cnluyntlla, xii. — B. Parsons, Anti-Bacchus; an E.ssay on Inloxicatirig Drinks. Repr. K. York, 1810 12. 
p. 199 ss. — R. B. Grindrod. Bacchus; an Essay on Intemperance. Repr. N. York, 1840.. 12. p 192,243. The last two "work* 
valuable as advocating perfect temperance." 

§ 332. The fashion of dress among the Romans underwent changes in differ- 
ent periods, but less in respect to form than the quality and expensiveness of 
the materials, and the ornaments. — The most general and peculiar garment of 
the Romans was the toga^, a national characteristic, whence, the Romans were 
termed Gens togatayand Togati., while the Greeks were termed Palliati. Il was 
a loose robe or sort of cloak, extending from the neck to the feet, close below up 
to the breast, but open above the breast, and without sleeves. It was therefore 
not put on, properly speaking, but thrown over the body. It was commonly of 
wool, and white in color; black, toga puUa, being used only on funeral occa- 
sions. The toga worn in the house was less loose and ample {ioga restricta)i 
that used in going out, commonly larger and flowing with many folds (fiisa). 

1. Some of the priests and magistrates wore it bordered with purple (toga prcBtexta) , 
this was also worn by freeborn youth, who, at the age of seventeen, exchanged it ibr 
the toga virilis or (because generally white) pura, which was assumed in a very .formal 
manner before the Praetor, in the Forum. — The trabea is described as a toga orna- 
mented with purple horizontal stripes; that worn by the augurs (cf ^ 209) is said to 
have been of purple and saffron color. — The angular extremities of the toga were 
termed lacinice. 

2. A statue of one Marcus Tullius, by some stipposed to be a descendant of the great Cicero, 
was found at Pompeii; "he is represented clothed in a toga prate^fa, the robe of office of the 
Roman maaistrp tes ; and, which adds value and singularity to the statue, this robe is entirely 
painted with a d lep purple violet color. This seems to give reason for believing that the prsB- 
texta, instead of beins a irarment with only a purple hem, as it is usually explained, was entirely 
dyed with this precious color; at least in tiie later times of the republic. The iiriee of this pur- 
ple was enormr.us ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to fiave been worth 
one hundred denarii (about £3, 4s. Trf) the pound; the red is valued by the saipe authority at 
one thousand denarii. It was obtained from the murcx, a shell-fish found in various parts of the 
Mediterranean." Pumpeii, p. 205. 

On the age for assuming the toga, cf Dndwell, de aetata tog. vir. sumendae, in his PrsUect. Acad, (cited P. V. § 542. 7.) p 245.— On 
the c'llor of the toga, Ameilhon, sur la leinlure des anciens, as cited § 26S. 4. (e^. 

§ 333. The garment which the Romans wore under the robe, wfts the tunic 
{twiicd). It was worn close to the body, without sleeves, and extending almost 
to the knees. It was entirely open, and fastened by means of a girdle above the 
hips. It was commonly, like the toga, white. In later times the lunic wa^ 
worn with sleeves. — With slaves and the poorer classes of citizens generally 
this was the only clothing, except the linen under-garment or shirt {indiisiurp 
subucula) which had small sleeves. The higher classes never appeared abroar 
23 



298 ROMAN A -JTIQUITIES. 

without the addition of the toga. In winter the latter often wore another gar- 
ment under it, called tunica interior or interula. 

1 u- Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the right side with a 
stripe of purple, called davits ; knights (equites) had two such stripes, bur narrower; 
whence the tunic of the senators was called laliclavia, that of the knights a?igusli- 
clavia. 

2. The emperors exercised the prerogative of bestowing the distinction of the laficlave upon 
such persons as they considered worthy of the honor. Cf. Pliny, Ep. ii. 9. 

§ 334 /. The women used the inm'c, with a girdle, as well as the men ; only 
that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore also an over-garment 
extending to the feet, called s/o/a, having a broad border or fringe {limhus) called 
instita. Some consider the palla to be a robe worn over the stola ; others think 
them both the same garment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a cir- 
cular form called cydas. The mourning robe of women was called riciniurn ot. 
rica^ covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was a short mantle, or 
vail, worn by the women. 

" A female statue, of the size of life, was found within the cellar of the temple of 
Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a toga. The 
border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, an inch and 
a q\iarter wide; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom, with the hand elevated to 
the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga." 

§ 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less in use. The 
/cPna was a thick woolen over-coat, used in journeying; this name was also 
given to the purple robe of the Flamines (cf. § 214), which was fastened about 
the neck with a buckle or clasp. The paludamenfum^ or chlamys, was a long 
Grecian cloak of scarlet color bordered with purple, used specially by generals 
and high military officers. The sagum was a soldier's cloak of red color, cover- 
ing only the back and shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was a kind 
of rain cloak, very broad, and usually with a hood or covering for the head 
(cucu/Jus, capifium). The pxnula was a robe similar to the toga, and more 
frequently used under the eriiperors. 

'I'he materials of which the Roman garments were made, were chiefly linen and 
woolen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The Romans 
seem to have remained ignorant how silk was produced, for a long time after the article 
was introduced among them by importation from the country of the Seres. Nor did 
they at first use it without intermixing linen or woolen in texture with it; for which 
purpose even the silk stuffs, which were brought from the east in a woven state, were 
unraveled ; cloth of this mixed texture is said to have been first fabricated in the island 
of Cos. The Coan vestments {vesle.s Cocb) appear to have been of a very loose texture, 
almost like muslin or gauze ; hence called ventus textilus, woven wind. The ^en'c 
vestments (vestes Serico}) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure silk. 'J'he 
term homhycma was sometimes applied to both, although it seei«s to have been consi- 
dered as more appropriate for the Coan article; as that was at length known to come 
from a worm {[io^ij-^l, homhyx), while the Seric was siill imagined to be gathered from 
the leaves of trees {Virg. Georg. ii. 121). Silk was considered as proper chiefly for 
the garments of females. In the reign of Tiberius the senate {Tacit. Ann. ii. 33) is 
said to have decreed (A. D. 16) that men should not disgrace themselves by wearing 
silk apparel {vesiis serica). The emperor Heliogabulus (slain A. D. 222) is severely 
condemned as being the first who wore a robe of pure silk. 

Cf. Article Seres, in Mnrhon\ Lempriere, and Sei-icum, in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities. On the Roman costume, see 0. Fenoi- 

rius, De Rr Vcsti.iria, in Grsevius, vol. vi. — Becker. Gallus, vol. ii. — Maillot and Martin, cited § 197 — Jimeilhon, L'usage des Soie 
Chez les anciens, in Ihe A/em. Jlcad. Inscr. vol. xlvi p. 452 — Gibbon, Rom. Enip. ch. xl. — Mahudel, Origine de le Soie. in the 

Mem. SfC vol. v. p. 21S — 7. R Foster, l)e Bysso Antiqunruni. Lond. 1776 8 For some illustrations, see Plate XXV. ; cf. § 169 

(or explanations. 

§ 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, or drew over it a 
parf'of the toga; except at sacred rites and festivals, on journeys, and in war. 
At the festival of the Saturnalia, particularly, they wore a sort of bonnet or 
woolen Qap (pileiis)., which, however, was allowed only to the free by birth or 
manumission, but forbidderj to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad-brirnmed 
hat', used in journeying. — There were various coverinors for the feet. The c«/- 
cei wore somewhat like our shoes, and covered the whole foot, and often with 
their lacings [airrigia, ligula) covered the ankles and the lower part of the leg. 
Shoes of strong untanned leather were termed joerones. The caligae were a kind 



p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 290 

of half-boot, worn by soldiers. The solese and crcpidoe wt/e sanda s, covering 
only the bottom of the feet, and were fastened by leather thongs and bands {yin- 
Cuba) passing above. 

The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top of the fool 
a golden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence limata pdlh, patricia luna). I'he shoes 
of the men were usually black ; thos« of women commonly while, sometimes ol a red 
yellow, or other color. I'he viullei were ot a reddish dye ; worn first by the kings, afier- 
wards by those who had borne any curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks 
made of wool or goat's hair, udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around 
with a sort of scarfs (fascicB), which were all in the Roman dress that corresponded to 
modern pantaloons or breeches {ftmoralia) and stockings [tihialiu). — I'he shoes of 
comedians were termed soccl ; those of tragedians, colhumi (cf ^ 89); those of panto- 
mimes, or the rattling appendages to them, scabella. The socais was a mere slipper, 
very frequently of yellow color ; the crepida seems to have been nearly the same ; the 
baxa was a sandal made of vegetable leaves or twigs; and the baxa and crepida were 
used by comedians as well as the soccus^ 

» The head-covering termed petasus, is seen in our Fiate XXIV. fig. 3. ^ See P.V. ^§ 317-3 9. — D. VJtftlnaye, as ciled P. V. 

§ 319 I. Various forms of cuerings for the feet and Ifgs are given in Plate XXIV. ; %ei (he explanaiinn, § 169. 2. 

§ 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the more ancient 
Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In the fifth century after the 
building of the city, it first became a common custom to cut the hair more fre- 
quently, and also to frizzle and anoint it. Young- persons were accustomed to 
draw the hair backwards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament. 

1 u. When the toga virilis was assumed (cf *^ 332), the hair of the youth was shorn 
and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it info the water in 
honor of Neptune. It was also customary, on ihe first shaving of the beard, to conse- 
crate it to some deify. Under the emperors false hair were used, by a contrivance like 
a peruke {capillamentum., galericulum). 

2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, .vhich hung 
from the neck on the breast. 'The boys, who were sons ot citizens of the highei 
ranks, wore one of gold (Jbulla aurea) ; it was usually a hollow sphere ; but other forms, 
and particularly the image of a heart, were introduced. Ihe sons of freedmen anc 
poorer citizens used only a leathern ball {bulla scorlea). This ornament was laid aside 
when the toga virilis was assumed (cf. § 332), on which occasion the bulla was conse- 
crated to the lares or ether divinities. 

Fig. 1. of our Plate XXV. is an altar-shaped box, worn by loose women of the Hindoo temples 
upon their necks ; richly ornamented with jewels. Boxes like this, or bags, seem to have bo<'n 
formerly worn on the neck to contain perfumes. Cf. Isn. iii. 20 (the tablets), and Sol. i^ono-. i. 13 
— The figure may serve to ilhisiraie the Roman biilla,aiS hung from the neck. 

See Montfaucon, Autiq E.xpl. as ciled § 13. vol. v. p. 6S. — Bauddul. BuUe que les enfaiils Rom. portoieni au cou, in ihe Mtia. 
Acad. Inscr. vol iii. p. 211. 

§ 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the dress of their 
hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, and adorned with golden 
chains, with pearls, rings, and ribins. The most modest fashion was the use 
of a broad ribin or fillet {vitfn), by which they gathered and bound the hair in a 
.bunch or knot. Besides the ointments by which they made their hair more 
glossy, it became fashionable in later times to color it, and even to scatter gold 
dust upon it. 

1. The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the fare as 
well as the hair; both white (cerns^a or crt I a) and red {nmtium). Various ointments 
[u7ia-uenta), cosmetics, and washes {medicaniina, smrgmuta), were Hkewise used lor a 
similar purpose. Effeminate men did ihe same-. Ot the various cosmetics we mention 
the following: amuraciimm, iasmiuum, nardinum, (esipum, metopium, rosacium, 
usinum. 

The mirrors (.specula) used at the toilet were made of polished metal, commonly brass or steel, 
lilso of silver; sometimes of glass {Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26, 3t)). Cf. J\Iev ur d, c'nci} ^ 169. v; cl 
also $ 268. 4. 

Among the personal ornaments of the Roman ladies were ear-rings, necklaces, and 
finger-rings. The ear-rings (mo(//YS) were of gold, pearls, and gems, sometimes «.l 
immen.se value. Necklaces {inonilia) were often. of gold set with gems; severaV 
splendid gold necklaces found in Etruscan tombs are now in the J3ruish Miisetim. 
The men°also used an ornament for the neck, which was a sort of twisted chain 
[torques), or a circular plate {circulus auri). Finger-rings {aniudi': were of various 
forms and devices, commonly set with engraved gems (cf P. IV. '^'^^ 205, 20(5), and 
used not merely for ornaments, but for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages 
or vessels ; hence perhaps they obtained the name of symbola. The ring was a very 
common ornament among the men ; originally only senators and equites (cf <* 2'j(\. 2) wer: 



300 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

allowed to wear gold rings ; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by specia. 
allowance ; those who triumphed also wore an iron ring {ferreus sine gemma). — Jewels 
and other female ornaments were kept in a casket {pyxis, ox pyxidula) made of gold, 
tortoise-shell, ivory, or other precious material. 

2 Spocimens of mosi of these ornamenls have been found at Pompeii. A gold ring, with an 
engraved gem set in it, was found near a temple, in a box along with forty-one silver coins and 
above one thousand of brass. In several of the houses were found skeletons with rings, brace- 
lets (armillip.), necklaces, and other ornamenls. Of these specimens we only mention further an 
ear-ring of gold, which had two pearl pendants ; and a breast-pin, to which was attached a Bac- 
chanalian figure, with a. patera in one hand and a glass in the other, having bat's winjis joined 
to his shoulders, and two belts of grapes passing across his body. This curious breast-pin is 
given in our Plate XLVIl. tig. i. — In the same Plate, figs o, and A, and ?•, are ear-pendants, from 
Montfaucon. Fig. 4 shows the ring which was passed through the ear. — Pig. ^ ii a pendant with 
a pin to attach it to a bandeau or some part of the head-drer^s. — This Plate also shows a variety 
of rings: cf P. IV. $ '206.— The torques is seen in fig. 1, of^Plate XLIV., cf. P. IV. $ 186. 9; and 
the viovile or necklace, probably, in fig. 5, Plate XXXV. — A mirror, with a box of pins, &c. upon 
a toilet-table, is seen in Plate XXV. figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 2 is a metallic purse for coins and jewels, 
from an Egyptian monument. This plate also shows various forms of the head-dress. 

Cf. R. A B tttger. Sabina, oder Morgeiiscenen ini Putzzimmtr einer reichen Rnnieriiin Leipz. 1806. 2 ih. S.—Nadal. Luxe dej 
dames Romaines, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iv. p. 227. — Becker, Gallus.- — On rio^s and their U'e, J. Kirchrnann, De Annulis. 
Lug. Bai. 1672. 12.— />. Bi<rma»n, De Jure Annulorum. Ultraj. 1734. — C. ^iW/ioZi/ius, De Inauribus Veterum. Anist. 1676. 12. 

3. The following passage, from a letter by a traveler visiting Naples and Pompeii, may be 
pertinent here. " What is admirable to us, barbarians of ihe nineteenth century, is the exquisite 
delicacy of shape of all the utensils which served in Roman domestic life. One must see those 
candelebras, lamps, vases of all sizes, those charming little bronze calefictors (for every thing 
was of bronze), those tripods, scales, beds, chairs, those graceful and so ingeniously wrought 
shields, which fill up whole rooms at the Naples Museum. One must, above-all, see tiie toilet 
arsenal of the Roman ladies, their combs, toothpicks, curling-irons, and the pots of vegetable and 
mineral rouge found in a boudoir. Thus the Roman ladies used rouge and deceived people; 
they wore, like our ladies, those necklaces, rings, and ridiculous ear-rings, which add nothing 
to beauty and diminish not ugliness. How times resemble one another, in spite of the space that 
separates them '." 

§ 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable features in the 

funeral customs of the Romans. The dying received from their relatives and 

friends present the last tokens of love by embraces and kisses. As soon as they 

were dead, the nearest relatives closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings 

from their fingers. The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by 

the slaves {pollindores) of the person taking charge of funerals {libiiinnrius). 

It was then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of the deceased, which, 

like that of the mourners, sometimes (cf. § 340. 4) was white. Such as had 

been distinguished by a victory were adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The 

corpse was then brought into the vestihulum of the house, placed on a bier, and 

there left for some days. This exposure was termed coUocatio. and the couch 

or bier, /ec/us f era/is. During the time of this exposure, there v/ere frequent and 

loud outcries {cunclamatio), accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief 

and sorrow. A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of 

the house. — Children and youth of both sexes were interred by night, with 

lighted torches, without attendants; but adults, on the other hand, by day, and 

with more or less ceremony according to their rank. 

Claude de Guichard, On the Funerals of ilie Ai.cients. Rom. 1600. 4. — J. Kirchrnann, De Fuiierlbus Romanorum (Libri iv 
Lub. 1672. 12. 

§ 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were practiced from 
the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with the funeral (^elatio, execjuiae) 
were the following, chiefly. The funeral of a distinguished person was pre- 
viously announced in the city by a herald, and therefore called /u?iws indiclivum, 
and, if the expenses were defrayed by the city, funus pub/icum. In the proces- 
sion, the musicians [cornicines, tibicines) and women hired as mourners (prasficae) 
advanced first, uttering lamentations and singing the funeral songs [lessus, nxniae. 
cf. P. V. § 333 /;) ; then came those who bore the images of the ancestors ; next 
the relatives, all in black, with other indications of grief; then followed play-^r*, 
mlrnics, and dancers {ludii, kislriones), one of thein (nrchimimus) imitating the 
words and actions of the deceased, and others quoting pertinent passages f-'om 
dramatic writings; after them followed the corpse, carried by bearers; ntul 
astly, a train, frequently very numerous, of both sexes. 

J w. The corpse was borne in a couch {lectica) on the shoulders, usually by the fr-eJ- 
men of the deceased, but often, in case of high rank, by senators and the most Ji.^- 
linguished citizens. In the case of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was b irne 
•n a small bier (snndnpila), by ordinary coffin-bearers {ve.spiUones, sandapilarii). 



F I. A T K XXXV 




8U2 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

The rich anci noble aniotiir the Greeks and Knmans were exposed, arid carried to their biiriai, 
on elegant and costly couches, sonielinies made of ivory, and gilded with pohl ; designated by 
the name »( ffretnim or ciipuliivi. That of Heroit is said (o have been all of gold, and inlaid with 
precions stones. In our Plate XVIll. f\<i. e, we have a funeral couch, which will illustrate these 
remarks ; it is given by Roberts as used now in India. The Jews seem to have used sometimes 
for a bier the cupoi or coffin (cf. Luke vii. 14); yet the Septuaginl has tlie word kXivti, <>r coucli, 
for the bier of Abner (cf. 2 Sam. iii. 31). 

2 u. The procession, when formally conducted, ptissed through the forum, where, 
if the deceased had been a person ol distinction, the body was laid before the place 
of haranjjue {rostra), and a eulogy (laudalio) was delivered by some relative or iiiend, 
or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. 

One is struck with the difference between Roman and Egyptian custon)s. The Egyptians 
brought the deceased to a trial, instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. 11. i> 34. 3. 

3. Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. Foi 
example, Jimia, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the lionor of a 
public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. '1 he images oi not less than 
twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ; viginii clarissimurum favrilia- 
rum imagines; an tela Ice sunt. {Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) — '1 he images ot ancestors, which 
were thus used at funerals, were the busts which the higher class of Rornatis kept in 
their halls (cf. P. IV. '^ 164). 

In J]vthoii''s Horace, in a note on Sat. I. vi, 17, is tlie following remark : " One particular rela- 
tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were >iot car- 
ried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. J^dam (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were employed 
fo personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the disguise." 
On this topic, however, consult Polyhius, vi. 51, 52. — Ciceru, pm Mil. \ 3— JJio yi Cassius, !vi. 134. 
— Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 2. — Suetujiius, Vesp. 19. 

4. " As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the senators some- 
times on these occasions went attired like knights, the niagisiraies like senators, &c., 
and that the common wear for mourners was black. . But we may ftirther remark, that 
though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, used alike by both .^exes ; yet 
after the establishment of the empire when abundance of party colors came in Jashion, 
the old primitive white grew so much into contempt, thai at last it became proper to 
the women for their mourning clothes. — 1 he matter of fact is evidetit tr<»m ihe autho- 
rity of Plutarch, who states this as the subject of one ol his problems [or Questions, 
cf P. V. *ji 249. 2] , and gives several reasons for the practice." K.nnell. 

§ 341. The place of burning, as also of interrinor, was without the city. In 
case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile {rogus, pyra) already 
prepared, its heijjht being in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased. 
Upon this they lay the corpse, havinor sprinkled it over with spices or anointed 
it with oil ; it is then kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it 
with averted face (aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed 
by the deceased, were thrown upon the pile: also various things which were 
presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When the w hole was con- 
sumed, the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collecting of 
the bones [ossikgium) ; these were placed in an urn {ftralis unia) of clny, stone, 
or metals, along with some of the ashes, also spices and perfumes, and some- 
times a small phial of iears (lachrymae) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited 
in the earth (^tumulus) or a tomb [sepiikhrum, cunditvrium, cinerarium). 

1 u. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether 
the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin calleci 
area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the dead {monvvieni a) was a very 
common, almost universal practice. They were not always raised over the spot of 
burial. 

2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at least a 
mound of earth (tumulus). When a monumental sfruciure was erected, it usually 
received an inscription {tifvlns, epifaphium) with the name of the deceased, and some- 
thing of his life and character. In the sepulchral monument, part of which is given in 
our Plate XXXVL the square pannel, seen between the representations of the Dii 
Manes:, was occupied by an inscription. Sometimes a bust of the deceased was at- 
tached to the monument. Columns or pillars, particularly small cippi, for sepulchral 
Inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Romans, as well as the Greeks 
vcf '^ lfi7). Sometimes an inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried 
in the earth ; and when the body was burned an inscription was placed on the urn con- 
taining the bones ; the inscription usually began, as on the urns preserved in the British 
Museum, with the letter!=;'P. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manihus Sacrum. — Monuments 
.lot on the spot of bivrial {fiimvli innnes or cenotaphia) were erected among the Romans 
"<^^r thf same reasons as among the Greeks. 

.'.'. There were public and private places of burial. The public were commonly it> 



:}X>x>K ^).i 




p. Ill DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. 303 

the Cainpusi Martius or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom the honor of such 
a burial-place was conferred by vote of the senate. 'I'hose for the poor were without 
the Esquiline gate, and called puticiilcp.. The private burial-places were usually in 
gardens or fields near the highways; the sides of some of the roads leading to Rome 
were occupied by tombs for the distance of miles from the gales of the city. 

4. One of the streets discovered at Pompeii is called the street of the tombs. The family tomb 
of Naevoleia Tyche, excavated here, may be considered a fair reprpsentaiion of such structures 
amon? the Romans generally. " It consists of a square building, cf)ntainirig a small chamber, by 
the side of which is a door giving admission to a suijll court stirrnundt^d by a high wall. The 
entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the f^uter wall there rise two steps, 
supporting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a bas-relief and inscrip- 
tion. — A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round the funeral chamber, and seve- 
ral niches for the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called cohimbarin from their resemblance 
to the holes of a pigeon-house. Some lamps were found here, and vianii urns, three of glass, 
the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them fifteen inches in height 
by ten in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. Tliey contained burnt bones, and a 
liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, wine, and oil. This 
liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the ashes." — In 1780, the beautiful 
antique called the Sarcophagus of Scipio, preserved in the Museum Pio-Clementiuum, was found 
in a tomb near the Appian Way. It is of the stone calli-d peperino or '^ lapis Jllhavus, a volcanic 
production found near the lake of Albano." Visconti, in describing it, says, "est du peperin le 
plus compact, et a douze palmes do long, sur six de haut et cinq de large." The inscription on it 
is given under the head of Roman inscriptions ; see P. IV. $ 133. 2. A bust with a corona on the 
oead was found in the same tomb. 

5. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground, and called 
kypo<y;cEa. Such are those discovered at Voleterrae and other places in ancient Etruria. 
Cf P. IV. § 173. 3. "Many of the hypogaea of Tarquinia, in Etruria, are similar to 
those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms and corridors branching out in 
various directions; and when the rooms are of a large size, the roof is supported by 
square pillars. The walls of many are coated with stucco and ornamented with paint- 
ings, representing, sometimes the arrival of.the soul in Hades, and the punishments in- 
flicted on the guilty ; but, in general, mythological, heroic, and civil subjects." 

For an account of the discovery of various tombs in Etruria in 1829, see Chevalier Ktslner, in the ^nnali ddP Instituto di Cor 
reipondenza Jrdielogica. Rom 1829. vol. 1st, p. 101. — Cf. /. Millingen, as cited P. IV. § 173. 3, and other references tliere sjiven 

6. Roman sepulchers have been found in England, containing urns with ashes and sarcophagi 
with skeletons. (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.) — A Roman burial-place was called, in the later 
times, Ustrinum, or Ustrina, from the circumstance of burning the corpse. One of these burial- 
places was discovered in 1821, at Littington ; many sermlchral vessels were collected, which are 
said to be preserved in the library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge.— In the parish of Ashd<m, in 
Essex county, are several artificial sepulchral mounds, known by the name of Bartlow Hills. 
Many have supposed then) to have been cast up after a battle with the Danes. Tlit^y are eight 
in number ; four larger ones in a line, and four smaller ones in a line in their front. The smaller 
ones were opened in 1832, and relics were f'Und which seem clearly to prove them of Roman 
oriein. In one, was f aind a remarkable brick sepidclier or coffin, six feet and three inches long, 
two feet three and a half inches wide, and one foot and eleven niches high. There were, in this 
brick cotfin or chest, three irlass vessels. One of them was a sort of urn, eleven and a half inches 
high, and ten and a quarter inches in diameter, with a reeded handle ; it was nearly two-thirds 
full of a clear pale yellow liquor, covering a deposit of burnt human bones; on the top of the 
bones was seen lyins a gold ring, which was found to be a siirnet-riiig having a ca.rnelian intaglio, 
with the device of two bearded ears of corn. Afterwards, on examination of the conlents of the 
urn, a brass coin was found, very much corroded, bearing the head of the emperor Hadrian on 
the obverse, and on the reverse a figure supposed to be that of Fortuna Redux. A representa- 
tion of the brick cofiin, with the vessels in il as they were found, is given in our Plate XVIIl 
fig. A h. One of the larger mounds was opened in April, 1835 An urn like the one above de 
scribed, with bones, was found; also other similar vessf^ls, tvvo bronze s'rigiles, and other 
articles. A bronze vase, witli colored enamels, was among the most remarkable. 

See P. IV. § 173. 2.—Mrchxologia (as cited P. IV. ^ 32. 5), vol. xxv. p. 1. vol. xxvi. p. 300, 368, with engraving. 

7. The ph'als, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the tears of relatives shed 
at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. They are termed lacliry- 
mattiries (urnce lachnjmales) . The tears are said to have been kneaded and compounded with 
odoriferous bsilsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels miL'ht have contained merely .i 
preparation of fragrant essences, which were figiiralively called tears. The lachrymatories found 
in the ancient tombs are sometimes of terra cott.n, sometimes of alabaster (cf P. IV. $ 195. 5), fre- 
quently of glass (cf $ 268. 4). Many of the latter material have been gathered from the cata- 
combs in the island Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades. Several forms of lachryma- 
tories ar 1 vasa unguentaria are given in our Plate XVIII. fig. a, and fig_ d d. 

See Merr- de VInstitut, Classe d'Hist et Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 92. sur vases lachrymatoires. On the vessels found at Mib, 

tee § 186. I 

8. It has been mentioned (cf $ 187. 4) that the Christians under the pagan emperors of Rome 
usually depositedtheir dead in subterranean excavations. "Anmng the monuments of Christian 
antiquity, none are more singular than these abodes of the dead ; and one feels at a loss whether 
most to "admire their prodigious extent, the laborious industry thai provided them, or the inte- 
resting recollections with which they are associated. Like the Moorish caves in Spain, they 
were generally excavated at the base of a lonely hill, and the entrance was so carefully con- 
cealed that no aperture appeared, and no traces were discernible, except by an experienced eye, 
of the ground having been penetrated, and of the vast dungeons that had been hollowed out 
underneath. . . . One was discovered about three miles from Rome so late as the end of the 
jixleenth century, the size and various apartments of -.vhich excited universal astonishmenl 



304 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

N'limbers still remain, bearinfi the names nf iheir respective founders, and affurdin!? by then 
inscriptions and the monuments of anticiiiity fmind in lliem, tlie nu)st saiisfiictory proofs of their 
having been used as liidini^-places by the (;hristiaiis." (Coleman'.i Christian Antiquities, p. 421. i 

§ 342. A period of mourning' was observed in memory of the deceased; its 

duration in each particular case was fixed by law ; in the case of widows it 

continued ten montlis. In the time of the emperors, a general njournina [hicfus 

puhHcus) WHS appointed at their decease or that of their sons; a thina [)reviously 

not practiced, except on occasions of g^reat public calamity. — Immediately after 

the funeral obsequies, it was also customary to slay the victims (called inferise) 

olFered in sacrifice- to the departed, and to connect therewith a solemn funeral 

repast [siiicei-nium). 

" Among the tomt)s at Pompeii there is a funeral tri( linium for the celebration of these feasts. 
It is open to the sl<y, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals in the center of the 
compartments, wtiich have Ixirders of flowers. '1 he triclinium is made of stone with a (ledestal 
in the center to receive the table." A view of it from Maivis is given in Smilk's Diet, of Anti 
quities. 

1 u. When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or entertainment 
was pubHcly given, and meal was someiimes distnl)uted among the people (visceTafio). 
These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the graves or spot ot interment. On 
such occasions, public games (ludi funehrcs) were appointed, especially gladiatorial 
sports. 

2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (§ 235), in 
funeral celebrations. And. although they were exhibited on many other occasions, 
"yet the primiiive custom of presenting them ai the funerals of great- men, all along 
prevailed in the city and Roman provinces; nor was it confined only to persons of 
quality, but almost every rich man was honored with this solemnity alter his death; 
and this they very commonly provided ibr in their wills, defining the number of gladia- 
tors as their due by long custom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in 
which the common people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, 
to be expended on this account." {Keniietl.) 

3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves of 
the deceased is siven by Firrril in the fifth book of the jEneid, where he describes the honors 
rendered by jEneas to the w(;?(es of his father Arichise.s. He mentions particularly a coiuest in 
rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a trial of skill in shoolit)g arrows, and a mock eques- 
trian battle {pngncB simulacra). — Cf. $ 187. 

$ 343 t. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was the deification {conse- 
cratio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian heroes. It took 
place in the Campus Martins, where the image of the person to be deified was placed 
upon a lofty funeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, pre- 
viously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according to the ideas of the 
people, bore the souh to Olympus. The deified person then received the surname oi 
appellation D/t;7<s. This solemnity was accompanied also- with religious rites, public 
games and banquets. The custom did not eniirely cease under the first Christian em- 
perors. This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was 
burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show, before 
these rites were performed with the image of wax. 

The vvliole ceremony is well described by Herodtan (cf. P. V. § 254), in the fourth book of his History.— Cf. Mencken, Disputiti 
it CoDsecratione. — Schmjjftin, Tractatus de Apotbeosi. Argeat 1*30. 



fo a^a-c A fet>^ec^ 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



Aj3-iix3aK£vaTa, 190 

A/yr/?r?Ao(, 163 

AyaOospyoi, 190 

A/a/Vo-a, 147, 222 
'AyfAai, 189, 192 

AycXiJOTot, 192 

Ay£Xur„;. 192 
'AyA-otw., 202 
'Avvnpa, 200 
'A_\aia. 127 

Ayi'(T//oi, 147, 163 

Ayopai, 17, 32, 33, 

36, 183 
'Ayjparoj, 109 

•'lypt'jjyta, 168 

Ayparspa, 102 
'AyYJfaXoi, 156 

AyX'OT^ta, 220 

Ayojyj?, 189 - 

Ayu)!/ CTnTa'pid;, 174; 

£va'6pla;. 171 
'Ay^yrj t£poi 173 
AycjytcTai-, 175 
'Aywf>9£ra(, 175 
'Avo) 'O'jsrr?,-, 171 
'A6h]!,avia, 119 
"aJ3(^, 214 
'A-^i?. 99, 100, 221 
'Ar^v.'aToi. 183, 199 

'A-^irOyieO 
'Mma, 168, 169. 
'Ac^M^iaj/io;, 169 
'A(5cuj'r(5(a, 169 
'Asicrirof. 187 
'AfK/i'iyra, 187 
'A'9/7'a, 104 
'AOrj'ai, 28 
'A6/7i/a(a, 171 
'A'?»7'''7, 28 

'A9\r,rai, 175 
'A9\o9£ra(. 175 
'A9Xo., 172 
Aiya'^ai, 188 
Aiyioxoj, 104 
Aiyig, 104 
AlW^, 204 

A1k\ov, 190 
Atyiy/iara, 207 
AIoXo,-, 113. 116 

Wpsrol, 180 

Aira' 220 
AlrrirtKa, 163 
Airia, 185 

Af>aXwrrtf, 159, 199 
A(\/-t>), 153 
A( 'pai, 176 

Avarioi/, 202 
'AKC(Tropi(](u, 162 
'AKEarpa, 218 
'A'cii'avrjj, 196 



'Ax-ffW!/, 108 
'A(f/ad9£7-Oi/, 108 

Afo^noi/, 153 

AK'oyrio'fj, 173 
'AKpariapia, 204 
'A/fpo/JoXiorai, 194 
|A.fpo9tj.,a, 149, 199 
'AKpuKEpaia, 202 
'A/fp«5i/(a, 200, 204 

'AK-pOTToXtf, 29 

'A«-po3T(5X(a, 200 
'AKpojrripia, 204 
A/crata, 178 
'Akt/?, 28 
'AKCJKri, 153 
''A/fcjy, 153 
'AXaXay^udf, 193 
AXftjU^uara, 210 
|AXjr-rai, 210 
'AX£:!7rr(7ptoy, 210 
'A\£Krp"uixa-^reia, 168 
'AXt^rirfipia, 153 
AXs^iVaTOj, 101 
"AXej op-jKrol, 262 
AXs'ipo/^ajTEia, 167 
'AXii/V(s, 173 
"AX//a, 172 
"AXf Snof, 207 
'AXrJjpjf, 172 
'AXtrrat, 173 

'AX)rupX:-7f, 173 

'AX-rja, 112, 168 
'A^a^(5j/£f, 131 
''A/i-nf, 208 
' A IX l)i,S\ri7Tpov , 158 
' An'Piyvrizii , 107 
'Aix'PiKTWvia, 183 
' AfxpiKTno'jiKa a9\a, 174 
' Ajx<pmiTOi, 194 
'Aii'P'i-p')nvoi, 200 
'Afi'Popzv;, 213, 214. 
'Am,(?a9//oj, 210 
'Avd0arrig, 172 
'Ai'ayfaroi/, 187 
'Ava6"0ixEur], 106 
'Ava9rjnara, 148 
'Afa^jioi/, 31 
'Ai'aifXu'OTrdXT, 173 
Av«/fp((T(s, 181 
'Ai/afopt(5£?, 209 
'Ai^a-'/iaxoi, 204 
Ai"'pa7rOf^o<fa7ri7Xo(, 180 
'AK^pn-o;'oi/, 159 
'AK5p£ra, 192 
Ai'^poXrj'i/ta, 186 
'Ai'Jpwymf, 210 
'AvEfiot, 128 
'Av£'.//(aJo))f, 220 
'Awi)/(oj, 220 
'AvOeffTripta, 168, 169 
'Affecrr/jpiwJ/, 61 



'AvdpaK-.a, 212 
"Ai'OoV, 171 

AvTspui;, 106 
'AvnypacptL^, 182 
'Ai/rXi'a, 200 
■'A//rpa, 162 
^Vi/r(;|, 194 ■ 

Ai/-CJ/iO(Tirt, 185 
|A^i^»7, 196 
'ATraycjy.T, 186 

Anarovpia. 168 
'AirauXfa, 220 
'A7r;7X£ <Jr/7j, 128 
"ATTig, 123 
'A-o,/?a0pa£, 202 
'ATToSeKrai, 182, 212 
'ATTOi^yri'/ptOi', 209 
'ATTo9s-at, 189 
'ATro/c)7pH^(f, 220 
'A7rd;cX?jroi, 193 
'ATToppaf:,-, 216 
'A7ror£(\(crti5j, 198 

ATTorponoi, 136 
'A/TO/ij/rai, 164 
'Ap,(iuXai, 208 
'AppvXr,, 208 
'ApytKpdiTns, 109 
'Apyjiprrtf, 182 
'ApyupowTCioy, 213 
Ap^dj/(yj/, 221 
'ApsiOTTayirac, 184 
'AprfOTTfiyo;, 184 
"Aprii, 105 
' Apfj-eipai, 162 
"Apfcrroj/, 204 
'Ap/c-Ei'a, 220 
■'Ap^a, 172, 220 
"Apfizva, 202 
'Ap^jviorai, 202 

' AppLOVlKY], 216 

'Ap//c<Trai, 190 
'Ap/idcrui/ot, 190 
' Aporpov, 212 
'Apoypa, 214 
"ApTrayff, 203 
'ApnaffTOv, 216 
"<ApTiurtj, 128 
'Appa, 220 
'Appaiii)v, 220 
\\premi, 101, 114 
' AprtpLOV, 202 
'Aprui'oi, 193 

'ApY«y£^«', 189 
'Apxrra, 190 
'ApXelov, 160 
'Apxdpsiai^ 162 
'Apxicpsr?, 162 
'ApXiepwcruv//, 162 
'ApY(0«Jpof, 172 
'ApxiK"(itpvnTri';, 203 
'Apx««^'-^»"?f, 262 



'Ap\;(rpi«-X(j/o;, 20n 
'Ap\:oj/r£f, 180 
'Ac7di'^(0:v, 200 

AaelSsia, 1^6 

Ao-iaj, 216 

AffKapoi/, 217 

Acr^a )Xoj, 217 

A(7KCJ/xa, 200 
"AdTTica, ct', 19*/ 
^Aff-tf, 153, 194 

'Aanpo-fjrn;, 95 
'A(7fpdr£urO(, 199 
'A(Tvii,8o\ot, 206 
'A(T(/idX(Of, 98 
'ArfX£<a, 178, 187 
'ATifxta, 186, 191, 2(« 

"ATtfXOl, 187 

ArpOTTOj, 128 
AvyomTdXia, 246 
AiXi), 210 
AiX)?-;)?, 217 
Av\r)rpts, 217 

AoXdj, 172, 216 
'Aijrh, 198 

AvnKpdrcjp, 190 
AurO|Uoria, 119 
.A?;ro//dXo(, 199 
Aii7-(5,x9cji', 178 
Avro'4/ia, 170 
'A'paptwrai, 192 
"A(/i£ff(f, 172 
'Acphat, 189 
*Ai/)Xa(7ra, 200 
'AcppoSiaia, 168 
'Aippodirrj, 105 
'Ail^ofpoog, 3 

B 

BaiV/j, 209 
Bd/c-xo", 162 
Bavvjia, 169 
BuK-YOf, 109 
BaX/?(f, 172 
Banrtan'jptMi/, 210 
BdpaOpov, ] 87 
Bapvj3pofiOs, 217 
Bdo-ai/Of, 180 
Bao-fXaj, 150 
BafffXsOf, 170, 181,20* 
Ba-TK-aj/ta, 168, 240 
BuThp, 172 
BaO, 214 
BaipeTou, 264 
B£/?;7Xo«, 163 
BetSiaioi, 190 
BafXoTTtf, 1 9 
BcXr/, 153 
BsXo^ai/rfirt, 167 
BijOecrda, 52 
B»?jua, 33 
B>;/:/ara, 186 

305 



306 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



B\avrai, 208 
Bor]6poiiiuiv , 60 
Bddj>oi, 149 
BoioTupxai, 192 
Bo\li, 202 
Bd^/?)f, 168 
B6//6.ii, 298 
Bopmf, 128 
Borous 212 
Boi-at, 189 
Bo>)Ovrai, 163 
BouXaoi^, 33, 184 
BovXevaig, 186 
BouXfurat, 177 
BouXEUrnpia, 32 
Boi<\ei)Tripiov, 184 
BouXr?, 177, 184 
Bowf, 213 
Bpa/?ao(/, 172 
Spavp^via, 168 
Bpoyrcroi/, 176 
Bpoi/rrjrdf, IL 
Bpo^Of, 158 

Bpoxof, ir~ 191 

Uvpfra, 5 1 
Bi5(7(oj, 166 
BmhoI, 148, 160 
Bw//df, rcji/ S-oSsKa, 87 



FaXafcrdcrTroj/tJa, 147 
Fa/i^Xia, 96 
TajxriXioiv, 61 
TanriXtot S:eoI, 220 

IVf, 206, 218, 220 
I'aarpa, 200 
l"(X(Trp?7, 167 
TaarpoijavTSia, 167 
r£((T(7rO(5(o-/^ara, 210 
Fci/^ffia, 222 
Terr?, 177, 189 
Frpajog, 176 
Fepda/crat, 188 
Tepo'ma, 190, 192 
FEfpo:/, 196, 198 
Fspcoivta, 190 
Fe^-pa, 200 
Ffw/idpoi, 192 
Ftyaj, 125 
TiYVpa, 217 
FfyypaiTa, 169 
F(yypa(T/idf, 169 
Viyypris, 169 
FtyypiV • 1 69 
rXa'm^mi^. 105 
FXai;^, 213 
rXevKos, 204 
f vaft-og, 264 
I'vmioi, 220 
rj')?o-(Of, 162 
IV'iOi aeavTOv, 165 
Fi/w//Mi', 60 
Foi'ijTrErEri', 147 
Fopy(5i.£f, 130 
Fopytfj/ioj/, 131 
Topyvoa, 187 
Fpa(v«l, 141 
rpan^arcvs, 181, 182, 

193 
'oa0>7, 186 



Fpr^ot, 207 
Fpu^, 132 
Tvr}q, 242 
TvQuov, 38 
FvXioi/, 154 
TvpLvaaiapxioi, 182 
rfui^aari??, 175 
Fwai/ceroy, 159 
TvvaiK^v, 159, 210 

A 
^a^ovxo?, 170 
AatpLOveg, 129 
AaiixovoXrjnroi, 167 
Aairpdj, 207 
Aa^cruXoi/ aips, 173 
Aa/fTuXof, 214 
Aai/ax-;), 221 
Aa<pvri, 163 
Aa^vr}f6pia, 168 
Aa'Xrj, 59 
AgiXtvd!/, 204 
Aeittvoi', 204 
AtKa6ap\oi, 196 
A£K-a(3oyXOf, 177 

AE/fUf, 191 

AEKaapioq, 186 
AeKarevTYiptov , 182 
A£/farPj, 182 
AEKa'pOivol, 60 
A£X'/)ti/, 203 
A£^toj, 167 
AOTaf, 207 
Aepixa, 199 
A£(r//df, 187 
Aeaixorfipiov, 187 
A£CT7ro(T(oyatiT^ai, 189 
Aexripispa, 61 
Ar/X(a, 168 
Afijxapxoi, 181 
Aiiifirnp, 110, 112 
ArijiriTpta, 168 
AiiixrjTpiag, 61 
A)7/iz(d7rpara, 182 
A>7/^toi)pyo[, 193 

Af5po(, 177. 178 
Anixoaioi. 180, 181 
Ar?w, 112 
Aia(3aBpa, 208 
AiaypaipeTg , 182 
A(d(5)7//a, 150 
Airtr5d7£tf, 183 
A(a9>7f^, 221 
Atair^jral, 186 
Ata«-rwp, 109 
AiaXKaKrfipioi, 186 
Atavoptai, 183 
Aiapx^, 190 
Aia'iX^pdpoi, 172 
Airt'-Xof, 172 
AiMprtXpov, 213 
Aidvpnix,Sog, 109 
Ati'TToXfta, 168 
AiVai, 186 
AiKata, 221 
AiK-aviK-oi X(|yo(, 204 
AiKaarai, 185 
AiKacTTtifJiov, 185 
AivAj, 117, 127, 180, 
186 



Ai/cpora, 154 
AiKTva, 158 
A£//(ixa(, 194 
Aiovvaia, 168, 169 
Acdi/uo-oj, 109 
AiOTTZTr], 160 
AioaripLeTa, 167 
AwCTKoiJpia, 136 
AtQff^O'jpoi, 135 
A£7rXrtt7(aCT//df, 197 
AiTTuXoi/, 28 
Atc/fOf, 173 
Aitpdepai, 209 

A((/)po;, 153, 157 

Ai<ppo(p6pni, 172 
A£w/?oXia, 183 
Ar^x'wv, 185 
Aiw/^ocria, 184, 185 
Atw^i?, 185 
AiWTri, 213 
AoKiixaaia, 181 
AdXfOj, 109 
AdXiXOf, 172 
AdXwi/, 202 
Ao/id?, 170 
Adpara, 203 
Aoparocpupoi, 194 
Aopnog, 204 

Adpi), 153 ; ETTi, 197 
AypuaXcorot, 199 
Ao'A£[a, 187 

AqvXoi, 159, 180, 207 

AoftpoidKri. 153 

i^pax/xn, 184, 213 

Apenavribopoi, 194 
Aparavov, 203 
Apopog, 172 
Ap'i!£f jxavTiKoi, 164 
Awjuai/arai, 188 
Aija)(5£/ca(5pd^ot, 172 
AvMpoi, 172 
A ''foa 3-£0i, 87 

165 
Aw^oji/aFo?, 95 
Acopa, 148, 207 
AcjpoSoKLa, 186 



"EyvXry^a, 185 
'EyraiXia, 200 
'EyTO///?o//a, 209 
''EyKMixiaartKoi, 204 
'E^'XSfpi^w. 196 
"Eyxof, 153 
'r.6o}\ia, 200 
"E0£(pa, 208 
"F.9,r„ 177 
EiVaj, 61 
EiVw, 187 

E(XaTii/»7, 204 
EiX£(9'j<a, 102 

El'XMTEf. 189 

E(>a, 209 
FApeveg, 189 
E,>>7i/^, 117,127, 197 
EiVayyEXia, 186 
Tjlg<p€poi/T£g. 182 
EiV'/)opa£. 182 
'F.KaT6nPaia, 168 



'FiKaropi^aibiv, 60 
'E<fard/i/3)7, 147 
'F.KaT6nPoia, 96 
'E'card/iTTfJoi/, 29 
'E/caroj/rapXta, 196 
"Efyoi/of, 220 
'VK^iaia, 117 
''E/c?7/?oXof, 101 
'E<c/fX)7a(a£, 183, 190 
'FKKoptSfi, 221 
'E<cXoy£rf, 182, 185 
'E/corariKoi, 167 
"EKraKTOt, 196 
'FK(popa, 221 
'EXai^?f aTScpavog^ 191 
■'EXawj, 212 
'EXaidoTTOj/Ja, 147 
''E\a(ljri06\ta, 61 
'TuXa(priPo\i(X)v, 61 
'EXOToXff, 198 
'EXfwii/ia, 168, 169 
"EX(K£f, 208 
"EWavoSiKai, 173, 1'75 
'EXX/ji/o^ix-aToi/, 174 
''EWfivojf aweSpiov, 183 
'EXXd/Jia, 208 
'"EXvixa, 212 
"EXvuof, 217 

'Eixdag, 176 
'Ep/Sdrai, 208 
'EnPareia, 220 
'FpPaTfiptoi', 198 
'E///?oXf7, 198 
'Ep^oXov, 196, 200 
'FlxniXwpoi, 190 
E/iTTi/fiicrra, 216 
'Evayta/ia, 149 
'Ei'ayrCT/iara, 222 
"Eyapa, 199 
"Ei'(5£(^(f, 186 
"EvSsKa, 181, 185 
'Fji^9ov(7ia(7Tai, 167 
'TjVpasTriplg , 174 
"Evmra, 222 
'Ei'ya^flti^oi, 60 
'Et't'EaTTuXov, 29 
'E^ npurai^Ei'w, 185 
'Ei^i57ri^(Oi', 167 
'Ei/Dw, 105, 119 
'F,i'(PpEarTOi , 185 
'Efw/iorict, 197 
'Ei/aJrfB, 208 
'E^fXty/^df, 197 
'E^£ra(Trat, 180 
"E^r7,/?0(, 189 
'E^oXaiptoi, 107 
'Efw/zis, 209 
'VindiKXoi', 190 
'ETraXfEK, 198 
'ETratiXia, 220 
'EncvyaKTOi, 189 
'E7rf/?a9pa(, 198, 202 
'E^(/?ara(, 202 
'Em'yoi'Ot, 136 
'T/niypaixpLara, 199 
'ETTtypa'/iai, 222 
'E7rtypa'^£rf, 182 
'T.Trihmva, 206 
'Etti A£X(/»(i/iw, 185 
'Yinii^popiog, 202 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



30; 



/KifiiiKajxio'/, 220 
A.T(%a, 222 
F.TTiKXripot, 220 
ETTi/fWTOt, 200, 202 
ErriXapxia, 197 
Em AVKO'), 186 
Emuaxia, 197 
'F„T(//£X,;ra/, 170, 174, 

221 
Erri Mririxo'', 185 
ETfopK-ia, 163 
'Etc YlaWaSuo, 185 
'^.Tuyeioiv , 200 
ETtV/cupo;, 216 
ETw-ar^,-, 183, 184 
EtiotoXeu;, 203 
Erfrayjua, 197 
ETtVoj^ot, 202 
Fjirirponh, 200 

'^Ti-rpOTTO; . 220 

E-'j/JsAia or'En-a)/?£Xta, 

185 
">7rdTra(, 170 

EtO 'pjLVLOl, 87 

'ETraxop:5o;, 216 
jETW^tj, 209 
'Et-i3vu^o(, 188 
'E-wn'tJef, 202 
"Kpavoi, 157, 206 
'Epa-w, U.b 
'Epydi/??, 105, 119 
'EpyaoTOcal, 171 
'Epyartf, l05 
'Epjrai, 202 
'Ert^r/^oi, 202 
'Eprrpta, 32 
'Epsx^nV, 29 
'Y.pk\Qciov, 29 
'Ecirj.'i^u£s, 128 
"Ep(f, 115 
"Eora;, 160, 222 
"Y.pjxa, 200 
"Epjitiia, 168 
"Ep//(ira, 208 
'Ep/zi?;, 108 
'EpuKDips?, 189 
•'Epw,-, 106 
■'BjOnixa, 209 
r.TTT^picr^ia, 204 

'EjTia, 113, 212 
'Ej-riaaif, 182 
'Ji,7riar6pLOi/, 210 
■'E-narcop, 206 
'ETXupa, 212 
'ETXapruj, 203 
'Erai'pa, ] 06 
'B-aipai, 220 
'F.r{:p:^^a{7X'MXoi, 180 
E'layyeXiKPi dno'kitig, 
272 

E-^^^rj, 181 
EuBivoi, 180 
E:V.t(5f;, 128, 168 
E'>ixo\m6a(, 162 
E ■> 'r,, 200 
E'wo/xia, 117, 127 
E'V^xof, 164 
E-V,', 128 
Ew£/?P7j, 164 
Evrepirrt, 126 



Jii.Xai, 147 
Ev(ppocTVi^r/, 127 
■'E'/iffJpof, 171 
'El^Eoria, 168 
'El)£arpig, 209 
'E'/>£ra£, 185 

"EpnUoi, 189, 190 
'E'/))7y)77ij, 186 

'E'/)(aXr>7j, 167 
'E/)i'7r7r(Ov, 266 
'E^ada'a, 197 
'Eppzlcv, 190 
■'E'/)opo;, 170, 190 
'E0 'i;!»7, 218 

'E,Y£rXr7, 212 
"Epr,pia, 204 

'E^j, 59, 114 



Zf'jyiraf, 177 
Zsy n-irep, 95 
ZsiJj, 94, 95 
Zfuj ffT-vyiOf, 100 
Zr(6i5pof, 128 
Z?/iia, 186, 191 
Z')ya, 200, 202 
Z'jyta, 96 
Z'jyrrat, 202 
Z'jyai, 197 
Zyydf, 196 
Zw^tnj jx^Xag, 191 
Z5^/j, 153, 208 
Zojar)7p£j, 200 
Zioorpoj/, 209 

H 

'HXavar??, 202 
'HXtai'a, 185 
'HXiaorai, 181, 185 
"Hhos, 100, 114 
'HXwrpo-io;^, 60 
"Hpap, 59 
'Hixepa, 114 
'H,uipaj apnayi, 115 
'H/z£po5pd/zO(, 199 
'H/i(£/froy, 214 
'}ilxt9copaKio >, 194 
'Hyi'oi(;o;, 153 
'UTra-ofTKOTTia, 167 
"Hpa, 96 
'Hpafa, 96, 168 
Hpiai irvXai, 222 
'Hptoi/, 222 
'Horoa, 222 
'H'/iaiVrefa, 168 
"HpaiTrOj, 107 

'HY^ra, 176 
'H.3j, 59, 114 "• 

Q 

OaXauirat, 202 
eaU'nog, 220 
e,iXaa, 126, 127 
GaXXot, 147 
Qa\\o(p6poi. 171 
Oa.-aroj, 130, 187 
Gapy/yXKbi/, 61 
Qa )Xc/jy('(5a(, 162 
Gcai aeixval, 184 
Qkarpov, 33 



QEixt\ioq, 202 
e>(£f, 117, 188 
eEOI AAEAi>OI 124 

Geoc o[ /iEydXot, 87 
GeoXoytroi/, 176 
Qsojiavreia, 166 
OeuiAafreig , 166 
e£0(£i/(a, 31 
QeoTrponot, 164 
Osoiipyol, 162 
Qepiarpioi', 209 
QeafxoOerai, 181, 185 
OOT/zot, 188 
&eaiiO(p'jpsTov, 171 
Qsajioipopia, 112, 168, 

170 
eeaiioipdpog, 112, 170 
Gsroi, 220 
Gfwpiva, 176, 183 
G£wpoi, 164, 174 
G%»?, 222 
G^o-£(a, 135 
G^r£j, 160, 177 
Qpauirai, 202 
Gpai/of, 202 
GpJjii'Of, 221 
GpiVuj, 157 
Qpnvcoi' tlapxoi, 221 
(-piyxos, 222 
GptrJal, 206 
9p''?, 208 ; 

di/(5pa77-o^-jj(5/75 , 180 

Gpo^/of, 157, 212 
evsWac, 128 
Q"jxiaiJia, 163 
e<5of, 147 
Gvpa, 210 
Gup£df, 196 
Oopso:p6poi, 194 
G'lpi^Ef, 210 
Guo-iat, 147 
0'>a(5£j, 162 
Gura;, 162 
Scop'iKtov, 198 
G.Spa(, 153, 194 

1 

'luKXos, 170 
'I'iXj/i9(, 221 
'IJarof, 95 
Ifpd, 28, 160 
'l£pflt 0,iXayr, 220 
'Ifp£(at, 162 
'lepdo:/, 163 
'hpeig, 162 
'T£po^((5,j(7,ifaXo(, 162 
'Irpdpo'iXoi, 163 
'ItpofxavTua, 167 
'l£p(J/ii/)7//aJ!/, 163 

'V^ 117 

■l£poTO(oi, 162, 170 
'\F,po(jKo-nia, 167 
'IfpofTuXia, 186 
'l£po?;pyot, 162 
'IspotpxvTai, 162, 170 
'IzpopavTrig, 170 
T£po0ai/rt(^£f, 162 
l>c£r£a(0;, 95 
'Ivpia, 200 
IXaj/^ds, 163 



llamiKa, 163 
"IXw J 97 
'I/-<aj 173, 199, 202. 

'.08, 212 
'I/i' »v, 208 
'Ids, 153 
'loxtaipa, 102 
'iTnraypsrai, 190 

iTTTTaywyot, 194 
'iTvzapXrtg, 194 
'I;r77ap,Xia, 197 
"Yirirapxoi, 193 
'l7nr£(0f, 9c 
'iTrrrsrj, 153,17^ ' iTl 
194 

'iTTToJpj/VOf, 33 

'limoXyrEia, 29 
'iTTTToro^drat, Ijii 
"iTnrcov, TO i(p\ i;j.- 
'Vi'£f, 189 

Tpif, 115 
"Ia9/x£a, 175 
"■laorupaj'J/O;,-, 190 
'loTui, 202 
'I(Tro/?0£vj, 212 
'larodoKrj, 202 
'IoT07rd.-5£?, 218 
'Wdj, 202, 218 
Ix.di'Oj.iavTEia, 167 

K 

Ka5io-Ko;, 184 
Ku^ot, 184, 214 
KfiSos, 214 
Ka^up/iol, 147 
Ka9£^pa, 169 
KaBsTfip, 263 
Katj^aj, 191 
KaiKiag, 128 
KaXdOto^', 170 
KaXX(d77)7, 126 
KaX'j/?J(rr/f, 244 
KdXoi, 202 
KaXvai, 221 
KuXuTrrpti, 208, 218 
KaXwJfoi/, 173, 202 
K«jU.;Ao!, 202 
Ka^7rr>7p, 172 
Kauri^jiopoi, 172 
Kdi/0apof, 207 
Kavihf, 172 
KaTTwJdv?/, 210 
KaTi^o/za'-fia, 167 
KapPari.'ai, 208 
Kap\;'70'(0j', 207 
Kipvcia, 168 
Iv.ira.Ja^/^ij. 54 
KnraSXtjriK^l, 173 
Karu/JoX»>, 206 
Karaypa/)/). 193 
KaruXoyOf, 193 
Karan-fXrai, 198 

l-'arUTTOlTfCr/yCif, 187 

Karaaraat;, 193 
Kara.dpdy/i/ara. 202 
KariippaKroi, 194 
Krtr?7yop['a(, 186 
Kdrorrrpa, 209, 212 
ICaroji/aAf/j, 209 



ilOS 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



K'ai.'crta, 208 
nayr,7C[0i/, 263 
Reuviij, or KaiaSag, 

1S7, 191 
Ke'^'^ttiv, 178 
i\f.ic''ia\oi, 208 
K*,.^vcrrr,s, 203, 282 
AtX)7r£f, 154, 172 
Ksi/fjpirt, 223 
KevoTdpia, 191, 223 
Kfyrr;cr(5, 191 
Kiyrpoc, 266 
Kepafa, 202 
KepajuiKOi , 32 
Kspajuiuf, 263 
K£pa//(o</, 214, 26'' 
Kepajiog, 187 

K£pai, 208, 217, 297 
Kipara, 196, 202 
KeparmT, 217 
Kepurtoj/, 214 
Kspavuiog, 95 
KspavyoaKOTTE'iov, 176 
fepJMOf, 109 
K^p^i?, 218 
Kfpjua, 213 
Kspouxo', 202 
KsipaXn hiTTi/o']^ 206 

Kr;7rot 'A(5 .')i/((5oj, 169 

K.7pjf, 130 

K/jpOjiavTEia, 167 

K^pii^sioj', 197 

K»^pu|, K)?pw£f, 148, 
150, 162, 170, 
181, 197, 207 

KiYK\i6£g, 185 

Kidapa, 216 

Kt/cti'j^of, 208 

Kf/x Viov r^rxof, 29 

Kii/ajpa, 217 

Kiar/], 212 

KlffTOfopOi, 170 

KAa(3o( iKrfipioi, I'*' 
K/\££m, 220 
KAa's, 210 
KXaw, 126 
KA£-^rr5pa, 1R5, 240 
KA/?'o.v£?, 168 
KA^jpo/xa-TEui, 167 
l\X?7po 1/0/13 J, 220 
KA>7pof, 220 
KX^/pwrot, 180 

KXr?r»7p£s, 185 
KX>^r.jp, 185 
k-\rpa«f, 198, 210 
KXimi, 206 
KX(i/»7, 212, 221, 302 
KXidif, 197 
KXtiT/xoj, 157 
KXotdj, 187, 191 
KXw9(j, 128 
F\i'i7(ur(5£f. 153 
Ki'iaari, 148 
Koy^, l70 
KoiVi'Oi, 208 
KoOopm;, 176 
Ko(Xf/x/?oAui/, 197 
K'ot'Xr;, 200 
KoTXui, 60 
Ko/vnrijpioj/, 223 



Koirn, 212 
Koirwv, 210 
Ko/^r?, 208 
KouTol, 202 
Koi/TO(p6poi, 194 
KottIj, 191, 196 
KoTTTTa, 214 
Kopai, 208 
Kopq, 213 
Kopo-??, 208 
Kdp"/i/?oj, 208 
Kopi3i/>j, 196 
Kdpuj, 153 
Kdajxoi, 191 
Kdrti/Of, 173 
KoTvapug, 207 
Kori5A?7, 214 
Kdrurrcd, 119 
Kovpoi, 207 
KdxXo(, 198, 214 
KoxXiapioi', 214 
KoxXioi/, 214 
Kpai/og, 153 
Kpanlpsf, 207 
Kpar/)p, 204, 207 
KpfiSsix.'ov, 208 
Kp,-;/^i/df, 187 
KpnmSes, 208 
KpjjTrt's, 222 
Kpidf, 198 
Kpcvixiiru. 217 
K/>w>7, 218 
]<uoK6n£Tr\os, 115 
KpdraAoi/, 218 
KpmT£ia, 189 
Kpo5/?.,Xof, 208 
Ktia^ot, 207 
Kvaixoi, 180, 163, 206 
Kuayi///?oX(J(, 200 
Kii^a'd, 206 
R'>/?£p^fJ7-r7f, 203 
K"PiarT}(ng, 175 
KvPlfTTrjrfjpEg^ 216 

Kf;KXof.32, 62, 194 
I«X(?, 207, 297 
VvXiaig, 173 
K'iXXo7rd(^)7f, 107 
Ki5/^^aXa. 217 
Kvvkr], 153 
Kijyr/ydj, 102 
Kvi/do-o'ipa, 188 
K'u'Offoupfrrf, 188 
Rvroj, 200 
Kvp'jjy, 187, 191 
K (W, 217 
KwXurcfui. 167 

K'OyxOf, 119 

K '>vet(,u, 187 
KM-at, 202 
KwTr/Xaraf, 202 
Ka),Tt7pr?. 200 
Kwf, 187 

A 

AoKKOf, 149 
AaKcoviKalj 208 
AajuTratJojj' r]nkpa, 170 
AdpvUKEf, 221 
Aafffiioi/, 196 
Adipvpa, 199 



Aajceo-tj, 128 
AEJTTOi/aurat, 204 
AeiTTOvavTWu, 186 
AEtTTOoTpdrtoz/, 186 
AaTTOrd/crat, 199 
Aenrora^iou, 186 
Aeironpyt'ai, 181 
AEKTpou, 149, 220 
AcTrraXiat, 217 
Aenroif, 213 
Al(7X?7, 189 
Acwaf^K, 91 
A£VKO)na, 181 
Aixof, 212, 220 

Ariio;, 209 

A)7fi)0o(, 221 
Afifaia, 169 
A?7^tapxo(, 181 
Ai7^tf, 185 
Arjn), 116 
AidofioXia, 187 
At9o/36Xoi, 198 
Ai0o(, 196 
A (00? npaHip, 180 
Aiixvdrat, 188 
AtVa, 158 
AijI/, 128 
Ai'x'J'^o;, 216 
Aoydt^ij, 191 
Aoytro!/, 176, 247 
Adyta, 164 
Aoyiarai, 180 
Aoy£crr(7j, 203 
AoiPal, 147 
Ao^ia;, 101, 166 
A')i)Tfipv}v, 212 
A'Jvrpd:/, 210 
AoiptTo-y, 212 
Ad</.oj, 153 
Ao\;ayot, 196 
AoxELU, 102 
AdYOf, 196, 197 
Avxata, 116, 168 

A'KTt^WVO;, 31 

IVI 

Maya^tg, 217 
Mdyai/a, 198 
l\Idyo(, 167 
Miua, 206 
ATa^'at, 190 
Ma'jxaKTYipiihv, 60 
iMaii/dJ^s, 162 
XIavpn (TKeXr], 29 
^''a'cpal vrjEg, 154 
Mafpai Trhpai, 31 
iNTaX^X'7, 206 
MaXAoj, 208 
Mai/r£:ra, 164 
Ma>'T£vuara. 164 
!\Iavr(K-r/, 164, 166 
MapTVptg, 185 
Mapriipfoi/ y£i/£0X(a, 222 
i\Iacrr(yO!,V)po(, 174 
iMacrrt'ycoiTij, 191 
MdoTff, 260 
Mrtxaipa, 196 
Mi^ijui'Of, 214 
M£iXixai, 173 
MtXirj, 153 



M£:Xtcr7roi'(5<i, 34" 
MfXicrcrat, 162 
IMtXirroyra. 221 

M£XTTOH£Vr], 126 

INkpapXia, 1961 
i\r£o-d(3//»7, 202 
MEaOKOiXog, 200 
'Mzuojx'^aXMv, iy4 
iM£iTOi/aiirat, 202 
MfffO ipiat, 202 
iNkcruodraf, 188 
UETafioXh, 197 
M£ray£(ri/£'Ji)i/, 60 
M£Ta66pTTia, 206 
iM£roiVo<, 171, 178, 
182 

'Meto'ikiov, 178 
^rUrpurlig , 214 

iVl£7-wTOi/, 196, 200 
iNRX-/, 263 

MrivdglaTaixhov, &C. 6 

Mnpoi, 148 
Mrixat'oi, 198 
J\I>7,\:q!/)7, 176 
M(Xr07:dp)70i, 200 
MiffQdf PovXevTiKOs, 

&c. 183 
MiVpa, 208 
MtVp,,, 194 
Mi/d, 213 
Mvfjua, 222 
Mi/)7p£:roK, 222 
Mvrjarpov, 220 
Mi/ota, 192 
i\ld0w)/£f, 189 
MoFpat, 128 
MoXtt;;, 207 
MoXvPSvvai, 153 
MdfauAoj, 217 
Moj//';p£(f, 154 
MoyoKpoTa, 154 
Moi/o//dxo(, 244 
Mdpaf, 188, 197 
Mop I at, 171 
Mop(p£Vg, 130 
Mop^!);?, 130 
Mo'ji/uxi'a, 33, 61 
Movuvx'ov, 31 
INTouyuxi^'Ji', 61 
Movcrai, 126 
iMow£roi/, 31 
MovaiKr], 216 
Mo 'lut/crj iX/iXij, 216 

iVbi9ot, 83 ■> 
MTj9oXoyta, 83 
^ItJXof OvlKOg, 264 
MvXwy£f, 180 
Ari.p(d/?</?Xoi/, 499 
MvpjxrtKEg, 173 
i\IvoTiip(a, 169 
iMi'crr(/cdf arjKOg^ 17<? 
M%oj, 119 



N 
t5Xa, 217 
at(5(a, 222 
aol, 160 
ao(pvXaK£g, 162 
avap^;«?, 203 
aiirat, 202 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS 



309 



^av(pv\aK£i^ 20? 
NeKp66ei77vov, l-i9 
N£Kpo9dTT-at, 221 
NeKOGiiavreia, 167 
Ne.'^aia, 222 
Nfjitsia or Ne/jaia, 174 
Ni/i£o-(j,, 117 
N£0(5a/i:.3j£tf, 189 

NEOpLTJUia, 61 

N£'^po^£ra, 216 
N£T)poj', 153 
Ns'/ifXjyvEpsDK, 95 
Nfcowpoi, 162 

Nr7£? dji(pi-p ^jivoi., 200 
l^rjaTEia, 171 
N/7r7?, 216 

Ni>/7, 29 
]No9o[, 220 
Noiieis, 200 
• No^£^a, 221 
NofjLicrixa, 213 ■ 
No^o9fra£. 181 
Nd;/0(, 216 

No/zoj, 188 
ISojxolivXaKsg, 172, 

181, 190 
Norof, 128 
Nvufai, 126 
N'Ti'pala, 126 
N3/^'irj, 212 



££;/(a, 207 " 
E^yto,-, 95, 158 
-.evoi, 178 
'S.tarrjg, 214 

E':</.5f, 153, 187 

Euo-rapX)??, 175 
H^o-rdj, 173 
E'^crrodiopoi, 194 
HwT-pa, 210 

O 

'0,5oXoj,213,214,221 
'OyodJfoy, 135 
'OyfOf, 176 . 
'Oinyos, 109 
'036i'T£?, 202 
'OAPYYHi: NYM- 

Oaii:, no 

'0%vai, 202 
O'laJ, 200 
OtViruf, 180 
OiKipia, 187 

OtTOi'o^or. 180 
OW, 210 

OiKOlKmiKOV, 168 

O(\o 'poi o'/irif , 28 
Oi 'Oua'TEia. 167 

0('4:^'i 206 

O; 'o; ju 'fpiuirrjg, 204 

OtVox^oi, 207 
OtVru, 153 
OkoviGTlKrj^ 167 
'O/crajrryptf, 60 
OXtyO(jjdpo(, 204 
OXva^£f, 200 
OXkoi, 202 
'OXocpvpixoi, 221 
OAuxi-eToi', 31 



"0/iO(oi, 188 
'OnOTrarpioi's, 218 
"0/z7rar, 170 
'OfiljaXos, 194 
'OfXJjaXo; yrjg, 165 

O^EipOKplrai, 167 

Oj£ipo-6\oi, 167 
"0>/£i,oof, 130, 167 

OjeipodKOTToi, 167 
'O^u/Mtrs, 198 
'O^iJ,- ptjy.xoj, 54 
'0-((79ddVo?, 29, 160 
"0-Xa, 202 
'OTrXrrat, 153, 193 

' O~\LT0ip6^l0L, 172 

"OTrXoy, 194 
"Opaixa, 167 
'Opyaj, 162 
''Opym, 169 
'Opyu(d, 214 
'OpecTLKOiTo;, 102 
"Opdiog, 216 
'OpBonaXi}, 173 
"Opxia -iiiveiu, 164 
"Opviof, 95 

"OpKOg fSovXevTiKog, 184 
"Opraf ixtyag, 163 
"OpiioL, 33 
"Op/xoj, 208 

'Op^CaKOTTOL, 167 

'OpviOofiauTCig, 167 
'Opo-ti/f^Jij, 95 
"Opuy//a, 187 
""Op.XT^ruj, 207 
Ojta, 221 
"Ojtot, 166 
'Oo-tcjrnp, 166 
'O7K0tl>6pia, 168 
'O<Tr0(io\;£ra, 221 
'OoToQiiKai, 221 
'OjToXdytOi/, 221 
'0(7-p:i/f(!^oi', 263 
'OarpUKiafidg, 187 
"OcrrpaCTy, 187 
'Orrxopopta, 168 
"Orrai, 168 
OiiXar, 147 
OijXdxuTa, 148 
Oi'pa, 196, 200 
OiJpayoi, 277 
Oipaydj, 196 
Oi'pavia, 31, 126 
Ovpayog, 114 
'OpOaXixdg, 200 
'Oip^aXfjLOvg (jxiyKKtisiv, 

149 
'Oxfl'""', 194 
'OxEvj, 153 
'Ox>7/iarwi', to l<p'' , 193 
"0></, 206 

n 

nayK-partaorat, 173 
riayK-panoi/, 173 
namy, 198 
Ilat'^Epao-n'a, 220 
na((5oi/d//0f, 189, 190 
naX)7, 37, 173 
naXXa/ci^£f. 220 
naXXaj, 104 



YlaXyioX, 168 
IlaXrdy, 1 53 
llajifia'nXeia, 189 
na//,5ot .jTta, 192 
llaiinaxoL, 173 
Ila/x/iixtot', 173 
n'i/i0"Xo(, 188 
nai/,' 116 

naycf9)7J'a(a, 168, 171 
JlavaBr^vaiKOv, 171 
Ilavdafo-tai, 206 
WavtajiLKol, 172 
n.iv(5?7/joj, 36, 106 
Tlay^oXE'iot/ , 208 
Hii^C'poo-Of, 29 
YlavBeov, 31 
nai/?7yvp(?, 174 
IIai'(*cd!/ Sciiia, 116 
IlayroJoTT/j laropia, 252 
HaTTTrog TrpcSroj, 176 
napa/?noTO!/, 186 
llapaypafn, 185 
Tlapai0drr]g^ 153 
n.apa<aTa,8oAiT, 185 
HapaXta, 178 
napaXof, 42, 187 
YlapanripiSia, 194 
Uapii/vpLfog, 220 
Ilapa^d/itjiov, 196 
n(Xpa7rX£"p[(3(a, 194 
Tlapaa-rinov, 200 
Ilapacrfrot, 162 
riapatTtrcji', 162 
Ilapacrrac-tf, 185 
Hapacriji/Oij/iaT-a, 198 
napf(?po(, 181 
UapsLal, 200 
nnpOii^ot, 29 
napOhog, 104, 105 

napfei^ow, 178, 218 
ndpoxos, 220 
nacrrdj, 220 
neii\a, 208 
II£:(TOi^ 193 
n£(pa(£v?, 33 
UeKjiavaKTiog, 31 
n£('T^ara, 202 
n£Xa(Ty«cdi/, 29 
YlsXavoi, 163 
mXarat, 160 

n£X£td^£f, 165 

n£X£ia£, 165 
ne\£Kvg, 196 
nfXo-Of vnaog, 34 
mXraTrai, 194 

mV;?, 194, 196 
mX-'ipfa, 91, 168 
YlkixjxctTa, 163 
ri£/jTrdflapYot, 196 
n£/i7rdf, 196 
n£i/7-a£r?7pif, 174 
nL'TaOXou, 172 

Tl£UTaK0(Tt0lxt5llX"0l, 177 

n£)/r?;»fO(Trff, 197 
n£i^r(7p£(f, 202 
nfrXot, 157 
nhr\og, 171 
n£7rXo'j aj(0(, 171 
UcpiPapiSeg, 208 
IlepljSoXog, 160 



Iltpi^ewj'oj/, 149 
Jlfpifpya, 167 
UepLriyriTai, 166 
IlcpLKeJjaXaCa, 153 
TlspioiKoSo^h, 222' 

HsploiKOi, 189 

n£pi7i-£r(icr/iara, 14'3 

n£p(-oX£roj', 197 

n£pt-oXo(, 197 
liepippavrfipiov , IGO 

163 
n£pt<T;c£Xtj, 209 
n£p(r£(X(o-A'df, 198 
n£p(rdi/£(a, 200 
Tlcpicpspeia, 194 
YlzpKppdypa-a, 202 
n£pdiy?7, 218 
n£po:/r7^.ara, 148, 218 
l\ep(TE(p6'jr) , 99 
n£-aXa, 187 
n£7aX(ff/iOf, 187 
n^rauoj, 208 
Ilfrpai fxaKpai. &C. ?"• 
n£7po/3dXo£, 198 
YlETpoiim, 170 
n£rr£ra, 20b 
Ilrjyo/iavrEia, 167 
nr;(5dX(oi/, 200 
U.r)Krtg, 217 

rwY"?, 214 

niXiSia, 208 

nrXof, 208 

Ilfi^d/cta, 180 
Jlivat dyvpTiKOg, 167 
riicrrff Attik)T, 164 
Ilirai/drai, 188 
nXayiayXof, 216 
TlXaiaiov, 197 
nXaK-if, 171 
nXardinara, 38, 190 
nX£0poi^, 214 

nXf-'pai, 200 

nX;';Oo"aa dyopa, 32 

nx;)vrpov, 217 
nX (1/0(0)/, 197 
nXd/ca//Of, 208 

TtXovTOg, 118 

nXojjTfjv, 91 

ni/ijr, 32, 183 
Tlodcg, 202 

no()f(Ar7, 31 

IloiKi\[a. 218 
novdf, 208 
noMpapxog. 181, 190 

192. 196 
UoXiag, 29, 105 
rioXrraf, 178 
noXviv^ptov, 223 
rioXvwcrra, 218 
noXi'/i!/(a, 126 
Yloh'fopoi, 204 
no/:iffa(, 183 

TlOlXTTElOV , 31 

ndTai'a. 148, 163 
UopOniov, 221 
ndpTO(C£f, 194 
JloTCif^coj/, 61 
Jloaeidow, 98 ■ 

noi)f, 214 

YlpdKropeg, 182, 185 



31C 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



np£(r/?ac, 181, 19 
Upia/Svs, 190 
UpoavXicv, 210 
npopXrifxaTa, 153 
Ylpo/JoXal, 210 
npo/SovXevixa, 183, 188 
ripoypajujua, 188 
Hlpoyvfii^dapara, 174 
UpoSiKOi, 190 
Ilpo^o/iflf. 210 
npoSoaia, ]S6 
YlpoeSpia, or TrpoiSpa 

187,191, 199 
UpoeSpoi, 183, 184 
Xlpoiiponia, 112 
npoiwoa, 220 
Upoi^i 220 
Upox-wTro., 202 
npo^£rw7j-to(ct, 194 
npy^fj'ta, 207 
npolE^/ot, 190, 207 
n.p6no\oi dcMV, 163 
Tlpd-o/Lta 2(\f 
TlpoTrvXaia, 29, .o(/, 

178 
UporrK£(pa\aia, 206 
np9(rd(5ta, 162 
npooTurr;?, 178 
lIpoffTepviSta, 194 
npoffajTEroi/, 176 
nporideaeai, 221 
ripdrowt, 202 
TlpoiprJTai, 166 
npo0i)Xa«at, 197 
ripdxoof, 212 
Ilpdxii/ja, 204 
Ilp'OWjuOffia , 185 
npi'/<ya, 200 
npvuvfjaia, 202 
npi'rai/£ra, 113, 182, 

185 
U.pVTav£ia, 184 
rip)rai/£ro!^, 33, 184 
npvTauEii, 183, 184, 

188 
ITpiT-ai'tf, 192 
np'jpa, 200 
npuipuTtis, 203 
npwprff, 203 
n-ap/xoi, 168 

rirepa. 200 

rirfpvytoi/, 200 
TlTuXis, 200 
n'jaj/£i//(u' 00 
ri'iy/^)?, 1*3 
.riiJ^aiffrat, 174 
n-i^.a, ]65 
UvOia, 174 
nu9(V0s- i^(5|U3j, 174 
Uv'iwt, 190 
roSto;^, 165 
ntl9(0j, 101, 165 
nvOo^uci, 167 
nwrw, 173 
ni)Aaydpa(, 183 
n^Aafa. 183 
TOA?;, 210 
Uvp, 187 

nt-pa, 149 

IKmvoc. 197. 198 



ITfJiO/fatiz, 186 
nvp60o\oi, 196 
IIopo/^atTEia, 167 
Uvpcpopoi, 198 
IlOcriOf, 166 
] Iaj/\>7 rai, 182 
YliOfxa, 153 



'PaP6oixai^T£ia, 167 
•Pci^Jof, 260 
'Pa/?coy:\;ot, 173 
'PvKpavoi, 206 
'Par^tf, 218 
•P»7rop£f, 181 
'P;7rpa(, 191 
'Piil^aaniSes, 199 
'Pti//<5, 173 

'Pod&r,, 218 
'PoJoJuxTuXof, 115 
'Pd(5oj/ vno, 206 
Pv/iara, 202 
'PiiffOJ, 212 

Torov, 207, 297 



S^ay'Jj"?, 158 
'^•'^Yl^'^, 194 
2aA7r(yy£f, 198, 217 
SaXTTty/crfjj, 196 
5:dA7rty^, 217 
^apPvKrj, 217 
Sa/a77i, 214 
Sai^^aAa, 208 
2a/(f, 187 
Saptwa, 196 
"ZapKOcpdyo; , 221 
m^mra, 246 
2£(o-t\0wj/, 98 
Sfrarpoi/, 217 
S£An!/?7, 101, 114 
SsAti^oy, 175 
2£AAot, 164 
Si7KOM,,212 
S»7wj, 160, 170, 222 
^filia. 222 
S^//£ra, 198 
"Eriixeiocpdpog, 196 
S((5£«fa£, 189 
'^.irapiov, 214 
Ztrrjaii tv irpvTavdo} , 

187 
i:trOfi£('a, 212 
•SiroJoK-ai, 212 
EiTOTTwAat, 212 
Jiro,-, 212 
X(ro0iiAa/c£f, 212 
S(rw', 112 
S<rw;/at, 212 
^>aA/iOt, 202 
YKa/u//a, 172 
l'>ca;/)»7(/idpO(, 171 
Sk-eAtj jxaKpa, 29 
Skct??, 222 
SK-£i;>7, 200 
'ZKrivji, 176 
YKrinzpov, 150 
HKia^rj'popla, 180 
i;;f(a<5>7(idpo(, 172 
SKtcif, 190 



S/ftAAa, 163 
"ZKioiiavTEia, 167 
Sfi'poi', 128 
"ZKifpocpopuov, 61 
SfdA(Oj/, 207 

SVOTTOf, 172 

S^OAa, 199 
S/dJAal, 163 
Sx-ur.iA?/, 199 
E'curdAia, 196 
SdXoj, 173 
Sopol, 221 
^opoi, 123, 302 

1.Tr apriov, 214 
•ZTrriXaiov, 222 
^.TTiBaiin, 214 
STrArtyX^Off/cOTria, 163 
SffXayXi-'dcrwrrOf, 163 
STTO^toj, 162 
S7roi/(5at, 147 
STTOyJr), 163, 197 
YraSioipopioi, 172 
SraJwi/, 32, 172 
UrdXiKes, 158 
2rari7p, 213 
Eraupdj, 187 
^reipr,, 200 
Yre^Hara, 147, 163 
YT£(pai'r](p6pog ^ 171 
"Lrt^avoi, 187 
llTF^avos, 148, 191 
2r£(^oj, 148 
Xr)7Xa(, 222 
SrJjXrj, 149, 187 
5;r)7jwwi/, 218 
2riy/xa, ISO, 187 
llTixoi, 197 
STf^O/uaiTfta, 167 
SrXfiyyif, 210 
Utoo. jxaKpa, 33 
Sroai, 31 
YToXapxo?, 203 
SroXn, 209 
SrdAoj, 200 
YrpaTTTyia, 196 
Srpa-rjyds, 190, 193, 

196, 203 
Hrpana, 196 
STpa70«')7pii^, 196 
2rpoyyi3A/7, 116 
Srpd0(Oi/, 209 
^Tpajptara, 206 
Suyyfwia, 220 
Suyy£i/£rj, 220 
Swo!/, 212 
YvKOipavria, 186 
Suwc^ai^rat, 186 
YvfifitAa, 168, 197, 

198, 207 
I.vn(io\n, 206 
1.vp[So}poi, 160 
Si'/^/^axra, 197 
^vnixopiai, 182 
S^/wdo-m, 207 
Sv/i7r0(7(apX0f, 206 
2vi/(5(W(, 181 
Sw)7yopo(, 181, 185 
HwdfixT], 197 
2w%a7a, 198 
Xvi'vaoi, 160 



2uj/oJof ^ AfKplKTVOVtM 

183 

^VVOlKETai, 160 

YvvTayjia, 196 

l^P'yr, 217 

Suao-trta, 190, 206 
D^ayfto/', 148 
'Ecpayis, 148 
"Z^paipa, 216 
Y.tpsvSovr], 153 
2\;£6£a(, 200 
SxotJ'O/^drat, 202, 244 
Sxofj'a, 202 
2(j3r££pa, JlcJTrjp, 29 

T 

Tati^ia, 209 

TaKTlKOl, 197 

TuAai/roi/, 213 

TaX£/xoi, 221 

Tajxiai Twv hpwv, 162, 

182 
Ta/xia;, 203 
Tajxias npoaoSov^ 182 

rwi/ QcoipiKWv, 176 
Tai'DTrripuysf, 167 
Taltapxot, 196 
TflltJ, 196 
Td(j>oi, 222 
T£y£ot, 210 
T£0p(7r7ro(, 172 

TtlXOg VOTIOV, &C. 31 

TeKajiuiv, 194 
Te\£.aaiyaixoq, 106 
TeXet^?, 163, 169 
T£A,7, 181 
TeAoj, 196, 197 
Te^dvai; 182 
T£/.£j^o?, 160, 162 
Tkpirn, 172 
Tepipixopri, 126 
Tccrcrapdx'Oi/ra, 186 
Terpaerrjplg, 60 
TfrpaXoyi'a, 171 
TsTpd(x)pot, 172 
T£rpr7p£(s, 202 
T£rpw/?dAou /?ioj, 193 
Tf rnyjf, 208 
TipirJixaTa, 181, 186 
Tot'xapxo?, 203 
Tor^ot, 200 
To Kaii/df, 186 
Td|UOupo£, 165 
Td^oi/, 153 
T^OT-at, 181 
To^o0dpof, 101, 102 
ToTTfra, 202 
TpaTC^a hvrkpa, 2D6 
Tpd7r£<;ai, 222 
TpaTCjOTTOfdj, 207 
Tpd(/),;f, 200 
Tpfipara, 200 
Tp(aK-d(5£f, 177, 188 

222 
Tpialag, 173 
Tp(/?wj.'(Oi/, 209 
Tpiycjvov, 186, 217 

'Tpt£T£piKO\ , 174 

Tpirjpapxia, 182 
Tpifjpapxoi, 182, 20'i 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



311 



rpiripav\tji, 203 
rpt»)paff, 154, 200,202 
TpiKi<pa.\os , 109 
TpiK\iviov, 2€6, 210 
TpifjLop<poi, 102 
Tpino6Es, 149 
'rpiiTovsxpi<^T^P'^°5i 165 
Tpt ra, 222 
TpiToyivcia, 104 , 
Tpirrvff, 189 
Tpixopiog, 216 
T/3(co^irif, 102 
Tpmaiou, 149, 199 
TpoVif, 200 
Tponoi, 202 
Tpoxof, 187, 263 
Tpv-rrava, 198 
Ti5/i./?oj, 222 
Tii/x-ai/a, 187 
Tvunavov, 217 
Twrot, 263 
TvXV, 118 

Y 

"YaXoj, 263 
"rppeco: Slkt], 180 
'Y^paXETijj, 264 
"rSpavhi, 217 
'Y6pia(popia, 180 
'Yiipia(p6poi, 172 
'YSpoixai'reia, 167 
'Y^poffTTOi/Ja, 147 
'YSpoipopoi, 207 
•YXXsr?, 188 
'Yfievawi, 220 

Y^.ii/£j, 220 

Yi^i/r?, or "Yj'i/j?, 212 

YTcpat, 202 

YrEocoa, 210 

Xrr^.moi, 192 

XmjpsTTfs, 180, 196 

24 



"Ywof, 130 
'YTToyata, 222 
'XT:oypannaTEL<;, 182 
'YnoSfiixara, 208 
'Y-o^c5fiara, 200, 201 
'Y-OKauo-roi/, 210 

'YTiOKpLTOi, 176 

'YTTOixEiOVEg, 188 
'Y-noiivoaia, 185 
'YTTOJirta, 173 

^aii'ii'Ja, 216 
<l>ati/6X77?, 209 
^a>car, 206 
<i>aXayyapxta, 196 
<?>aXay|, 196, 197 
<l>dXapa, 194 
^aXrjpdj/, 33 
4>aX»c(j, 200 
^aXos, 153 
<f>ai'racr/ia, 167 
^apkrpa, 153 
^dpnaKU, 168 
^apiiaKEia, 168 
^aOjua^for, 186, 187 
'J'apof, 157, 208 
■^ao-i?, 186 
<l>£yyir)7j, 290 
^ei^iria, 190 
^epsrpov, 149, 221 
^Epi'r;, 220 
«J>£{!ywi', 185 
^rinai, 168 
<f>i1/if?, 118 
<^0orf, 170 
^ia\T], 207 
<f>jaX(r5£?, 221 
<J>iX??rop£j, 220 
*tXma, 190 

$tXo/l££0>)?, 106 



«J>tXd^£)/o(, 207 
<I>6/?,?, 208 

^O^flTCjp, 130 

't>or/?oj, 100 

'f'oi'Ofwj/, 'Etti TfOl', 185 

<f>6i^os, 186 

■^opjjiiy^, 216 
^i5pot, 181 
<f'opr;7^0l, 200 
^parpiai, 177, 189 
^parpiKa, 206 
<f>pi:aro., 32 
^pfarror, 'Ei/, 185 
^puyi'oi'coi/ epyou, 218 
*uyi7, 187, 191 
*uXat, 177, 178 
^vXuKal, 197 
<^vXdpx/??, 194 
^vXapxof, 181, 196 
^vXo^atTiXeig, 185 
<i>T;o-K?7, 206 

•^WVIKCL, 198 



Xair/j, 208 
Xa'XKEia, 107, 171 
XaX/cioi/co?, 36 
Xa\KOvs, 213 
'K.apia-Tfjpia, 163 
Xdptrtf, 127 
Xap (jiSrjpa, 203 
XsipOTOvrjTol, 180, 183 
Xstporoj/ra, 182, 183 
XtXtvapara, 200 
XeXwi/?;, 198 
Xepi/t!//, 148 
X7;i'iffOTf, 200 
XtXiapJC'a, 196 
XiXiapxoi, 196 
Xtro)!/, 157, 208 
XiToivri, 102 



XXoti/a, 157. 208 
XXai/if, 209 
XXtJw)/, 209 
Xoai, 147, 149. 22'> 
Xori/t^, 187, 214 ' 
Xopnyia, 182 

Xop^yyot, 182 
yiopog, 176 
Xoi)f, 214 
Xpf?//a, 213 
Xprinara OeoypiKa, 176 
XpriixaTtapog, 167 
Xpr](Tpoi, 164 
XprjafjLoXoYOi, 164 
Xpi]aixO(p6poi, 164 
Xprjarfipia, 164 
Xpipara, 210 
Xpiffrdj, 272 
Xpdj^Of, 91 
X«/ia, 149,198, 222 



faXrJyptoi/, 217 
trXXjoi/, 209 
ffi(piaiia, 183, IBS 
*i70ot, 183 
*ta0ta, 186 
^tfiiJpa, 217 
*(Xot, 153, 194 
'ivfXop.avTEia, 167 
*uXo<'"'"ao''«, 100 

a 

'll/?al, 188 
'il^Etoi/, 32 
'll(5£Afai, 167 
"Slia, 210 

'SlpoOsTE'lVj 148 

'lioaAfOTTia , 167 
"flpat, 117, 127 



T" 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Ablecti, 277, 278 
Accerisi, 252, 276 
Accipe libMTis, 238 
Accuhiia, 291 
Acciisjilor, 259 
Acerra, 232, 239 
Acelabiiliim, 268 
Acidalia, 106 
Aries, 275, 282 
A( irincep. 100 
Aclid(;s, 281 
Aclia, 26 
Actiofies in personam, 

ill rem, 259 
Actiiis, 101 
Actnr, 259 
Actiiarias, 283 
Acmarii, 252 
Actus qnadratus, 268 
Ad bpsiias, ad ludos, 

&.C., 260 
Addict us, 267 
Adjiidicarid, 268 
Adtriovens 237 
Adotiia, 106 
Adoptio, -^88 
Adoratiii, 237 
Adrastia, 117 
Adscriptilii, 87, 276 
Adiilterii crimen, 260 
Advocatns, 259 
Adytum, 230 
/Ecastor, 136 
^depol, 136, 239 
-Edes sacra, 1 17, 230 
.Ediles. 19, 246, 219 
^.ditui, 236 
.E'.'pon, 125 
^?is, 104 
Aello, 12S 
iElurus, 12t 
^tiea fistula, 263 
^neatores, 274 
iEolus, 116 
^rariiim, 256, 261 
Africus, 128 
Agaso, 278 
A-ielse, 189 
Agger, 15,280, 281 
Agmen qiiadiatum, 

pilatum, &c. 278 
Agmine, nno corili- 

nente, 276 
Agnomnn. 2^6 
Agonalia, 211 
Agone, 237 
AgorffiuS, 109 
AgriiiiHtisorvs, 264 
At'rntera, 
Ake, 276 
Allia liiiea, 243 
Alba Longa, 11 
Alecto. 128 
Ales, 109 
Aliptre, 293 
Allies, 2.')3 
Altaria, 230 
Alveiis, 2S2, 295 
Amanuensis, 289 
Amaracinum, 299 
' Miaracus, 107 
.312 



Ambarvalia, 112, 236, 

241 
Ambitus crimen, 260 
Ambrosia, 109 
Airtentum, 173 
Amiculutn, 298 
Ainor, 106 
Amphigyeis, 107 
Amphiilieatra, 19 
Amphitrite, 98, 125 
Amphora, 268, 296 
Amtruare, 235 
Anadyomene, 106 
Anagnostae, 289 
Anchora, 282 
Ancile, 94, 235 
Ancilia, 105 
Anclabris, 230 
Anculie, 120 
Anculi, 120 
Andabatae, 244 
Angusticlavia, 256,298 
Aniuia mundi, 116 
Annates, 233 
Annuli, 299 
Annulus aureus, 256 
Aniefixa, 263 
Antennae, 282 
Anleros, 107 
Antesignani, 276 
Anteslatio, 259 
Antistites, 236 
Anubis, 124 
Aonides, 126 
Apaluria, 109 
A-pes, 264 
Apex, 233, 235 
Apis, 123 
Aplustria, 282 
Apodyterium, 293 
Apotheca, 296 
Apotheosis, 137, 304 
Apparriores, 252 
Aprilis, 61 
Aquffiductus, 19 
Aquiln. 128 
Arae, 230 
Aratnres, 289 
Aratrum, 264 
Arbiter bibendi, 295 
Arbitri causarum, 259 
Arbori suspendere, 260 
Area, 302 
Arcarius, 289 
Archigallus, 94, 236 
Archimagiri, 295 
Archimimus, 300 
Arcula thuraria, 232 
Arcus triumphales, 19 
Area, 204 
Arena, 247 
Areopagus, 32 
ArL'eiitarii, 263 
Argiva, 96 
Aries, 281 
Armamenta. 282 
Armamentiim Chirur- 

gicum, 294 
Armaria,' 290 
Armi'sLer, 289 
ArmillaR, 275, 300 
Armilustrium, 242 
Arrha hospitalis, 295 



Arrogatio, 288 

Ars figlina, 263 
pistoria, 263 
tincloria, 264 

Arx, 17, 233 

As, 266 

Ascolia, 109 

Aspergilluin, 232 

AspersoriuiTi, 232 

Asseres falcati, 281 

Assertor libertatis, 289 

Assessores, 259 

Assipondium, 207 

Astraea, 117 

Astroiogi, 240 

Asyla, 162 

Asylum, 17 

Atergatis, 106 

Athena, 105 

Ailantiades, 109 

Atlamides, 114, 134 

Atria, 254 

Atriensis, 289 

Atrium, 290, 291 

Alropos, 128 

Auctio, 268 

Auctores classic!, 253 

Augurale, 278 

Auguratorium, 233 

Aiigures, 232, 233 

Augurium,233, 240 

Augustales, 236 

Augustalia, 242, 246 

Augustus, 61 

Aula, 290 

Aulffium, 246 

Aures, 264 

Aureus, 267 

Aurora, 114 

Aurum coronariuni,284 

Auspices, 233 

Aiispicium, 233 

Auster, 128 

Auxilia,285 

Avena, 264 

Aversi, 302 

Aviarium, 292 

Avigerium, 233 

B. 

Bacchse, 110 
Bacchanalia, 168 
Bacchus, 109 
Balista, 281 
Balistarii, 276 
Balnea, 18,293 
Balneator, 293 
Balneatores, 289 
Baphiuni, 264 
Barritus, 274 
Basilicaj, 17, 18,259 
Bassareus, 109 
Batilliis, 264 
Baiiola;, 297 
Baxa. 299 
Bellaria, 294 
Bellica, 105 
Bellona, 105, 120 
Berecynthia, 93 
Bes, 286 

Bestiarii, 244, 260 
Bibendi arbiter, 295 
Bic^:s, 93 



Bidens, 264 
Bifrons. 93, 267 
Biga;, 266 
Bimater, 109 
Bipennis, 232 
Bisellium, 254 
Bis millies, 267 
Bissextus, 62 
Boia», 260 
Bombycina. 298 
Bombyx, 298 
Bona Dea, 93, 244 
Boreas, 116, 128 
Bracca;, 209 
Brachia, 29, 282 
Brontes, 107 
Bubo, 233 
Bubona, 120 
Buccinte, 272 
Bulla, 299 
Buris, 264 

C. 

Caballi, 266 
Cabiri, 136 
Caduceus, 108, 124 
Caducifer, 109 
Cadus, 296 
Caerites, 10 
Cssia, 105 
Cassias, 128 
Calathus, 123 
Calcar, 266 
Calceus, 298 
Calcei njgri coloriS; IX 
Calculi, 295 
Caldarium,293 
Calenda;, 61 
Calices, 297 
Caligae, 298 
Calliope, 127 
Calones, 278 
Calumnia, 259 
CamarEE, 283 
Camilla, 238 
Camilli& Camill!B,23e 
Camillus, 239 
Caniinus, 291 
CaitioenEe, 126 
Campi, 16 
Campidoctores, 280 
Campus Martius, 16, 

105, 239, 259 
Campus sceleratus. 236 
Candelabra, 232, 291 
Candidati, 248 
Canens, 130 
Canis, 295 
Canistra, 232 
Caim()us, 124 
Cantharus, 123 
Canus, 91 
Capedo, 232, 238 
Capediincula, 232 
Capillamentum, 299 
Capillitia vola, 238 
Capis, 232 
Capile censi, 271 
Capite velato, 237 
Capiiium, 298 
Capitolinus, 95 
Capitolium, 17 
Capsarii, 293 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



313 



"apsum, 266 
Capulum, 302 
Caput, 267 
Caput coenfE, 294 
Carceres, 243 
Cardines, 291 
Care II urn, 296 
("larniPii seculare; 244 
Cariuetilalia, 2U 
Caruiiiie cerio evo- 

car-', 239 
Carna Dea, 242 
Ciiruifex, 252 
Carpentiiisi. 266 
Carptor, 2-9, 295 
Carruca, 2()G 
CasaB, 290 
Casa Roimili, 17 
Cassis, 274 
Oastalia, 127 
'^'astaiiiles, 126 
Castra stativa, hiber- 

na. &c. 278, 280 
Cat-^piilta, 281 
Cataslaj, 289 
Catellffi, 275 
Catenae, 260 
Caletiulae, 275 
Cathedra, 254 
Catdiiiidiare, 235 
Caupona, 208 
C:iusa, 2.59 

Causae fidei bnnae, 259 
Cavaedium, 290 
Cavea, 246 
Celoeiio, 128 
Celeres, 270, 276 
Cellae, 291 
Ct-llaria, 291 
Cnllarius, 289 
Cella saiiclinr, 230 
Cella vinaria, &:c. 291, 

296 
Ceriotaphia, 302 
Ceusores, 250 
Census, equester, 254 
Cemauri, 131 
Ceritesima reriiin ve- 

naiiuni, 262 
Centesitua usura, 2&7 
Centies, 267 
Centiniaui. 113 
Centuuisestertiiiiri,267 
Centuiuvirale judi- 
cium, 259 
CeriturioE, 272 
Centuriata Coniitia, 

257, 259 
Ceniurio, 272 
Cerberus, 100, 132 
Cercopithecus, 124 
Cereales, 246, 249 
Cerealia, 112, 242 
Ceres, 110 
Cerili, 240 
Cerussa, creta, 299 
Cessio, in jure; extra 

jus, 268 
Ceslus, 106 
Chaldffii. 240 
Chary bdis, 132 
Chiniaira, 131, 132 
(^hirurgi, 277 
Chitoue, 102 
Chlauivs,298 
Chloris, 120, 242 
Cibum, 294 
Cilliba, 291 
Cinerarii, 289 
Cinerarium, 302 
Cirigula, 96 
linguluui, 266 
Cinguiuni laiieum, 287 
Cippi, 302 



Cippus, 302 

Circi, 1» 

Circuiiio vigilum, 280 

Circulus auri, 299 

Circus Flaininins, Sal- 

lustius, &c. 243 
Circus Maxiuius, 18,242 
Cisium, 266 
Cista, 270 
Cives, 258 

Civitates foederatae,258 
Clarigatio, 234 
Ciassiarii, 282 
Ciassici,253 
Classicum, 274, 282 
Ciassis, 282 
Clathri, 290 
Claustra, 291 
C'laves, 291 
Claviger, 93 
Clavus, 282, 298 
Clavus figendus, 242 
Clepsydra, 60, 240 
Clientela, 254 
Ciima, 268 
Clio, 127 
Cliteilae, 266 
Clitellarii. 266 
Cloacae, 19 
Clotho, 128 
Ciusius, 93 
CoBlus, 113, 116 
CGBrnptin, 286 
Coena, 293 
Coenacula, 293 
CcEna nuptialis, 2S7 
Coena recta, 295 
Coenationes, 293 
Casus, 124 
.C''gnornpn. 285 
(Johors, 271 
Cohortes vigitnin, 284 
Coliseum. 19, 247 
Cnllegia fabrorum, tig- 

narinrum. Lc, 263 
Coliegiun!. 232 
Collina, 120 
Collis hortnlnrum, 16 
Coilocalii), 300 
Coinni. 290 
Colonise, 258 
Colossus, 42 
Col urn, 296 
(>)liimbar, 260 
Columbaria. 303 
Columella, 291 
Coiumnae, 19 
Columna lactaria, 287 
Columnariuni, 262 
Coluf?, 287 

(Monies dioeceseos, 285 
Comites, 285 
Comiria, 234, 257, 259 
Compitales, 129 
Compitalia, 129,242 
(Vnnpluviuui, 290 
Comus, 119 
Concilia, 257 
Conciones, 257 
Conclaniatio, 300 
Concordia, 122, 242 
Condere lustrum, 239 
Condictio, 259 
Conditorium, 302 
Contarrealio, 286, 287 
Congius, 208 
Conjectores, 210 
Connubiuni,28fi, 290 
Conquisiiio, 271 
Conciuisitores, 2.';2 
Conscri[itio, 271 
ConsHcraiin, 238, 304 
Consentes, 87 
Coiisivius, 93 



Constitutiones,2Gl 
Conslratum navis,282 
Consuales, 246 
Consualia, 98,242 
Consnlares, 2:^5 
Consul desi2natus,248 
Consules, 248 
Consus, 98 
Conliciniuin, 60 
Contubernales, 278 
Contubernium, 280,286 
Convenlio in nianum. 

288 
Coqui, 295 
Corbes, 295 

Corneumsperi!lare,290 
Cornicines, 274 
Cornicula,275 
Comix, 233 
Cornu,217 
Cornua, 272,282 
Corona, 280, 303 
Corona caslrensis,niu- 

raiis, civica, &c. 

274, 275 
Corona, emptio sub, 

268 
Corpus, 262 
Correciores, 285 
Corrigia, 298 
Cortina, 247 
Corns, 128 
Corvus, 233, 281,282 
Corybantes, 94 
Cosineta,289 
Cosmi, 191, 102 
Cothurni, 299 
Cotytto, 119 
Covinus. 194 
Crater, 297 
Crates, 2-^0 
Crepidae, 299 
Crepnndia, 287 
Creta,299 
Cribrum, 113 
Criinen inajestntis, 

peculatus,252, 259, 

260 
Crista, 274 
Crius, 124 
Crotala, 218 
Cruci atfieere, 260 
Cubicula,291 
Cubicularii, 289 
Cubicnlum, 247 
Cucullns, 298 
Cudo,274 
Cnlcita,.291 
Culeus, 260,268 
Culina,291 
Culter, 264 

Cultrarius,232,236,237 
Cultri,232 
Cultrum, 104 
Culullus, 232 
Cumernm,287 
Cnniaria,289 
Cunei,247 
Cuneus, 196, 275 
Curatores aquaruin, 19 
Curiae, 17, 18,236,2:2. 
Curia Saliorum,235 
Curiones, 232, 236 
Currus, 266 
Cursus, 213 
Cu rules, 249 
(Gustos, 93 
Cyatlius, 268, 297 
Cybele, 93, 112 
Cvclas,298 
Cyll.Miius, 199 
Cyllopodcs. 107 
Cymbia, 297 
Cynocephali, 124 



Cyn'^ia, 102 
Cynthius, 101 
Cypria, 106 
Cytherea, 106 

D. 

Damnum, 260 

December, 61 
I Decemviri, 251 
I Decennalia, 238 
I Decreta, 261 
I Decumap, 262 

Decnnx, ]G6 

Decuriae, 259, 272, 27* 
288 

Decuriones, 258, 263 
270, 288 

Dedi(aiio templi, 238 

Defrutarinm, 296 

Defriituni, 296 

Delectus, 271 

Delia, 102 

Delins, 101 

Delp icMs, 101 

Delpbinus, 101 

Delnbrum, 230 

Dpuiarcbi, 181 

DeniPiisum, 274 

Denarius, 267 

Dens, 264 

Dentale, 204 

Dei)orlati(). 260 

Desiirnatores, 247 

Detf-rsor, 289 

Deiesiatio sacrorum, 
288 

Deunx. 266 

Deus, 95 

Devoiio, 239 

Devovere, 239 

Dexter, 233 

Diana. 101, 114 

Diana linbastis, 124 

Dianus, 93 

Dicatio, 238 

Dicere diem, 259> 271 

Dictator, 551 

Dictynna, 102 

Dies comiiiales, 257 
fesii, fisli, &c. 241 

Dies()iter, 95 

Diffarrpatio,287 

Digitus, 268 

Dii niiijoruin et mino 
rum gentium, 87 

Diis Mat.il)ns, 302 

Dionysia, 109 

Dioscuri, 135 

Dioscuria, 136 

Diota, 21.3,296 

Dirae, 233 

Diribitor,289 

Diribitores, 257 

Disci, 232 

Disci jactus, 243 

Dispensator, 289 

Divortia, 287 

Divus, 304 

Dodrans, 266 

Dolabra, 232,264 

Do)ia,296' 

Domiiiiuni, 268 

Dominns, 288 

Domus, 20, 290 

Dona, 302 

Dona iriilitaria, 274 

Donaria,230 

Donatio, 268 

l)..iiatiea,274 

Doris, 98 

Druid(r,237 

Dryades, 126- 

l)uVes,285 

Du'ciarius, 280 



314 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Duodena scripta, 2(/5 
Duplex acies, 275 
Diiplicarii, 274 
Duiiinviri, 238,239,252, 

2,58,259,261,282 
Dux, 278 
Uyndymena, 93 

E. 

Echidna. 132 
Edicta, 261 
Edicturii, 219, 256 
Edicturii pe;petuuin, 

249 
Editor, 244 
Eijeria, 96, 230 
Ela5othesiuin,293 
Slatio, 300 
Eleusinia, 112 
Elicius, 95 
Elysiurn, 99 
Emeriti, 275 
Erneritutn, 275 
Emptio sub corona, 268 
Enceiadus, 125 
Enclahris, 230 
Etisis falcatus, 196 
Eiiyalius, 105 
Ephiitltes, 125 
Ei)hippia, 266 
Epibatae, 282 
Epidelius, 101 
Epilaenia, 109 
EpistoisB, 261 
Epitsenia, 109 
Epitapliiuin, 302 
Eoithalarnia, 287 
EpuIiE, 234 
Epulares, 234 
Epulones, 232,234 
Epuluin Jovis, 242 
Equestris, 118 
Equites, 214, 253, 278, 

298 
Equo publico merere, 

256 
Erato, 127 
Erijfone, 117 
Erycina, 106 
Erynnis 112 
Esseda;, 194 
Essedarii, 244 
Euripus, 247 
Eurus, 110, 12R 
Euryale, 130 
Euryphaessa, 114 
Euierpe, 127 
Evncati, 278 
Excubite, 280 
Exequiae, 300 
Exerciuis, 2S0 ! 

Exilium,260 
Exostra, 246 
Expediti, 276 
Exponere infantenj, 

287 
Exst-quise, 300 
Exia mula, 234 
Extispices, 233 
Exlispiciutn, 240 
Extraf»rdinarii, 251,277 
Extreuiuni, 257 



Fabiani, 235 
Fibri,277 
Fabricae, 280 
Fabruui, 253 
Factiones, 243 
Fiiiina. 297 
Faiarica, 281 
Falces murales, 231 
Falcifur, 91 
Falnila, 264 



Falsi crimen, 260 
Falsun), 239 
Falx, 261 
Fama, 118 
Familia, 235, 288 
Familiffi jus, 258 
Familiares. 129 
Fanatici, 240 
Fanum, 230, 210 
Far, Farina, 264 
Fasces, 232, 218 
Fasciae, 299 
Fascinatio, 24 
Fascinum, 119, 240 
Fascinus, 119 
Fasti Annales, 241 

Cnnsulares, 211 

dies, 241 

Kalendares, 241 
Fastigium 291 
Fauna, 130 
Faunalia, 241,242 
Fauni, 130 
Faunas, 130 
Febris, 120 
Fehrua, 61, 100 
Februarius, 61 
Februatio, 241 
FebruMs, 100 
Feciale?, 232, 234 
Femoralia, 299 
FenestrEB, 290 
Peralia, 241 
Ferentarii, 276 
Frtrelrius, 95 
Feretrurn, 302 
Feriae, 241 

Feriae Laiinae, 11, 241 
Feronia, 120 
Ferreae manus, 282 
Ferula, 260 
Festi dies, 241 
Festum mercatorum, 

109, 242 
Fibulae, 275 
Fictile, 263, 297 
Fides, 122 
Fides Graeca, 164 
Eidlcines, 236 
Figlina, 263 
Figiilus, 263 
Fiscinae cnrbes, 295 
Fiscus, 261 
Flabellifer, 289 
Flagellis, 260 
Flagellum, 101,260,266 
Flamines, 232, 235, 298 
Flaminice, 236 
Flaminica, 235 
Flaminii, 236 
Flammeum luteum,287 
Flora, 120, 212 
Floralia, 120, 242, 216 
FInmina inferorum, 25 
Foculi, 291 
Focus, 291 
Foederatae civitates, 

258 
Fcenisectores, 289 
Fcenum, 264 
F(enus, 267 
Fotitinalia, 242 
Fora, 17 

Foramina, 282, 290 
Forda, 242 
Ford icidia, 242 
Forfex 275 
Fori, 242 
Formae, 26,3 
Forluoa, 118, 303 
Fortuna Fortis, 242 

virili^ 242 
Forum, 17,259, 302 
Forus, 295 



Fossa, 280 
Fraenum, 266 « 
Fratres Arvales, 232, 

236 
Fraus, 122 
Friaidarium, 293 
Fritillus, 295 
Frumentarii, 277 
Fucus, 299 
Fulcra, 291, 294 
Fulguratores, 234 
Fullo, 264 
Fullonica,264 
Fu';!fmium, 264 
Fuinarium, 296 . 
Funainbuli, 244 
Funditores, 276 
Funes, 260. 282 
Funus indictivum, 

publicum, 300 
Furiae, 128 
Furina, 128 
Furinalia, 128, 242 
Fuscina, 244 
Fustuarium, 275 

G. 

Gaia, 93, 112 
Galea, 274 
Galericulum, 299 
Galerus, 233, 274 
Galii, 94,232, 236 
Gallicinium, 60 
Gailinarii, 289 
Qallinarium,292 
Gallus, 233 
Ganymedes, 96 
Gausape, 293 
Gemoniae, 260 
Genethliaci, 240 
Genii, 129 

Genio indulgere, 129 
Gens, 285 
Gens togata, 297 
Genlilitia, 288 
Gladiatores, 244 
Gladius, 274 
Gladius et hasta, 249 
Glaucus, 98 
Globus, 275 
Gradivus Mars, 105 
Gradus,217 
Gratiae, 127 
Greges, 243 
Grus,28l 

Gubernaculum, 282 
Gubernator, 282 
Gustus, Gustatio, 294 
Gultus, 232 

H 

HabenaR, 266 

Hades, 99 

Haereditas, 268 

Halcyoneus, 125 

Hamadryades, 126 

Harioli, 240 

Harpagones, 282 

Harpocrates, 121 

Haruspices, 232, 233, 
237 

Haruspicina, 231 

Hasta pura, 274 
sanguinea, 234 
velitaris, 274 
venire sub, 268 

Hastae, 274 

Hastati, 271, 274, 276, 
278 

Hebdomades, 61 

Hebe, 96 

Hecate. 101, 102 

Helirea, 186 

Heliaslae, 181 



Heliconiades, 126 
Helius, 100, 114 
Hemina, 268 
Heraclidae, 188 
Hercules, 134 
Hermae, 109 
Hermanubis, x24 
Hermes, 108 
Hesperides, 134 
Hilaria, 94,236, 241 
Hippocrene, 127, 131 
Hippocrenides, 126 
Hippodromi, 18 
Hippolytus, 08 
Ilippona, 120 
Histriones, 300 
Hocage, 237 
Holocaustum, 238 
Honor, 122 
Honorati. 249 
Horae, U7, 127, 240 
Hora hiberna, brevi» 

si ma, 240 
Hordeum, 264 
Horologium, 60 
Hortator, 282 
Hortus, 292 
Horus, 122, 124 
Hospes, 295 
Hostiae, 237 
Hydra, 131 
Hydraulis,217 
Hygeia, 117, 118 
Hyperion, 114,124 
Hypogaea, 303 



lapetus, 124 
lasminum, 299 
Idaea, 93 
Idalia, 106 
Ignis, 113 

Ignominia, 251, 260 
liitiiyia, 96, 102 
Illustres, 2.56 
Imagines-, 302 
ImmOl ire, 237 
Impedimenta, 277 
Imperator, 257 
Imperium, 283 
Impluvium,290, 29J 
Inanes tumuli, 302 
Inauguratio, 238 
Inaures, 299 
Incubalio, 166 
Iiidigetes, 87 
Inducula, 244 
Indusiuni, 297 
Infamia, 260 
Inferiae,304 
Infundibulum, 264 
Ingeriui, 285 
Ino, 125 
Insigne, 232 
Inslita, 298 
Insulae, 291 
Intercedere, 2.50 
Intercisi dies, 241 
Interdictus, 260 
Interrex, 251 
Interula, 298 
Inuus, 116 
Inventor, 95 
Invidia, 122 
Iris, 96, 115 
Irpex, 264 
Isia, 123 
Isis, 122 
1th in partes, 256 

J. 

Jactus Veneris, 29} 
Jaculatores, 276 
Janua, 93,290,291 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



315 



Januarluo. 61 

Janus, 18, 93, 267 

Janus hit'rons, 267 

Judices assessores,259 

Judicia. 259 

Juga, 96 

Jugarii,239 

Jiiurerutn, '-ifiS 

Jusrum, 264, 266 

Jnlii,235 

Junius, 61 

Juno, 96 

Caprotina, 2|2 
Moneta, 242 
Sospita, 241 

Junonalia, or Junonia, 
96 

Junones, 96 

Jupiter, 94; Termina- 
lis, 119; Latiaris, 
284;Infernus, 100; 
Maitnactes, 242 

Jura prnvinciarum, 
praefpcturarum, 
&c. 258 

JuraiiienTuni, 239 

Jurare conceptis ver- 
bis, 239 

Juris iriterpretes, 250 

ins iElianuni,261 
civ'iiaiis, &c. 258 
Fiavianum, 261 
honorarium, 249 

261 
hospitii 295 
imaginum, 254 
Latii or Latinita- 

tis, 258 
niililise, 258, 271 
Papirianurn, 261, 
Pontificiurn. 24] 
Quiritium, 258,286 

Jusjurandnm, 239 

Julurna, 120 

Juvenaies, 246 

K. 

Kalendae, 61, 210 
Kalendariurn, 211 
Kinura, 217 

L. 

La ha rum, 272 
Lahyrinihu"!. 43 
Lacerna, 298 
Lachesis, 128 
l.achryniae, 302 
Lacry males, 303 
l/icus, 19,296 
Laena, 233,235,298 
Lancese, 274 
Lances, 232, 294 
F/anificium, 264 
Lanisla, 244 
Lapis Albanus, 303 

specnlaris. 290 
Lapithae, 131 
Laquearia, 290 
Lararium, 12'' 
Lares, 129, 291 
Lares Prasstiies, 212 
Larvae. 129 
Laierculus, 278 
Lateres coctiles, 263 
Latialis, 95 
Laticiavia, 256, 298 
Latomiae, 40 
J,atona, 116 
F/atiis claviis, 256 
Laudatio, 302 
Lavatio Mairis Deo- 

rum, 211 
Laverna, 120 
Lecti, 291 



Lectica, 300 
Leciicarii, 289 
Lectisternia, 234, 239 
Leclisterniator, 289 
Lectus feralis, 300 
Lectus summus, me- 

dlus. imus, 293 
Legati, 252, 278 
Legem accipere, jube- 

re, abrogare, &c., 

261 
Leges atrrariae, &c., 261 

Curiatae, &c., 261 
Legifera, 170 
Legilimus,288 
Leinnius, 107 
Lemures, 129 
Lemuria, 242 
Lethum, 130 
Leucanthes, 91 
Lex aniialis, 248 

Atinia, 261 

Furia,261 

Julia, 2S6 ■ 

Poppaea, 286 

Porcia, 260, 283 
Liba, 238 
Libellus, 244 
Liber, 109 
Llheralia, 241 
Libertatis jus, 258 
Liberti, Libertini, 265 
Libertina, 106 
Libitinarius. 300 
Libra, 266, 270 
Librae, 266 
Librarii, 277, 289 
Libri Elephantini, 18 
Libs, 128 
Liburnicae, 283 
Lictores, 248, 252 
Ligo, 264 

Ligula, 232, 268, 298 
Liinbus, 298 
Liiiguis favete, 237 
Linuin, 264 
Lilare, 224 
Lilui, 272, 274 
Lituus, 232, 233, 274, 
Lixae, 277 

Locus cnnsuiaris, 293 
Lnra,260; subjiigia,266 
LoricH, 274 
Lucaria, 2H 
Luciernfe, 291 
Liici, 18, 230 
Lucina, or Lucinia, 96, 

102 
Lucta, 243 

Lucius publicus, 304 
Ludi, 19 

Ludi Apnllinares, 101, 
212,246 

capilolini, 216 

circenses, 98, 101, 
212. 243 

florales, 246 

funebres, 304 

gladiatnrii, 244 

magni, 212, 243 

meijalenses, 246 

plebeii, 242,246 

scenici, 246 

secuiares, 102,243 

votivi, 246 
Ludii, 300 
Ludus, 244 
Ludus Magnus, &c., 119 

Trojae, 213 
Luna, 101. 114 
Lnnaiici, 240 
Luna pairicia, 299 
Lunata acies, 2b2 

pellis, 299 



Lnpercalia, 116, 235,241 
Luperci, 232,235 
Lupercus, 116, 235 
Lustraiiones. 239 
Lustrica, 232 
Lustrum, 62, 239 
Lusus naturae, 110 
Lyaeus, 109 
Lycaeus, 116 
Lychnuclius, 291 
Lycuis, 101 
Lydius lapis, 266 
Lymphati, 240 

M. 

Mactare, 237 
Maenalius, 116 
Maeniana, 247 
Magister auclionum, 
233 

coUegii, 233 

convivii, 295 

equitum, 251, 284 

inilitiae, 284 

navis, 282 

officiorum,250,284 

peditum, 284 

publicanorum, 262 

publicus, 234 
Magistratus, 251 
Maimactes, 242 
Maius, 81 
Majestatis crimen, 2.52, 

259 
Mala, 294 
Malleoli, 281 
Malleus, 232, 291 
Malus, 282 
Mamurius, 235 
Manceps portuum, 262 
Mancipatio, 268 
Mancipia, 285 
Mandata, 261 
Manes, 129, 304 
Mangones, 289 
Mania, 129 
Manicae, 260 
Manicula,264 
Manipulus, 272 
Mansio, 278 
Mantilia,294 
Mannmissio, 288, 2S9 
Man us ferreae, 282 
Mappa, 294 
Marculi, 291 
Margaritae, 268 
JVIargines, 15 
Manna, 106 
Marra, 264 
Mars, 1-05 
3Iariiales, 246 
Martins, 61 
Materfamilias, 287 
Mathematici, 240 - 
Matralia, 242 
Matrimonium, 286 
Mausoleum, 20,48, 114, 

223 
Media Nox, 60 
Medicamina, 299 
Medici, 2S9 
Meditrinnlia, 242 
.Medusa, 104, 130 
Megaera, 128 
Megalenses, 246 
Meualesi I, 94, 241 
Mehercle, 239 
Mellona, 120 
Melpomene, 127 
Mensae, 291,294 
Mensarii, 263 
Meiisa sacra, 230 
Mensis intercalaris, 61 
Mephitis, 12, 120 



Mercatores, 263 
Mercatorum festum. 

109 
Mercurius, 108 
Meiae, 243 
Metatores, 277 ' 
Metopium,299 
Milites leves, 271 
Militia; jus, 258,271 
Milliare, 268 
Milliarium aureum, 15 
Millies, &c., 267 
Minerva, 104 
Minium, 299 
Ministri, 236 
Mirmillones, 244 
Miscellanei dei, 87 
Missio, 244 
Mnemosyne, 124, 126 
Modi us, 268, 282 
Mola, manuaria, asi- 

naria, &c., 264 
Mola salsa, 237 
Moles Hadriani, 20 
Molybdis, 282 
Momus, 119 
Moneta, 96, 242, 267 
Monilia,299 
Monopodium, 291,294 
MonsPalatinus,&c.,l! 
Mnnumenta, 302 
Morpheus, 130 
Mors, 130, 260 
Mortarium, 264 
Mulciber, 107 
Miilcta, 260 
Muliones, 289 , 

Mullei, 299 
Munera, 244, 302 
Munia pacis et belli, 2&3 
Municipia, 258 
Murex, 297 
Murrha, or Murrhi- 

num, 263, 297 
Musculi, 281 
Musica, 105 
Muslum, 290 
Mutitatio, 295 
Mystagogi, 236 
Mythi, 83 

N. 
Naenia, 138 
Naenise, 300 
Naiades, 126 
Napaeag, 126 
Nardinum, 299 
Natalitia vota,238 
Naturalis, 288 
Naumachiae, 19, 243 
Naumachiarii, 243 
Nautea, 282 
Navarchus.282 
Naves onerariae, Ion 

gae, rostraiae, &c , 

282 
Navis praetoria, 262 
Nefasti,241 
Negmiatores, 263 
Nemesis, 117 
Neptunalia, 93,242 
Nereides, 98, 126 
Nereus, 98 
Nervus, 260 
Neryx, 15 
Nexus, 267 
Niobe, 102 
Nobiles, 254 
Nobilitas Romana, £> 
Noinen,285 
Nomius, 101 
Nonae, 61 
Nota censoria, 251 

interior, 9'-V 



316 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Notae interior, 296 
Noiarii, 252 
Noius, 116, 128 
November, 61 
Novi homines, 254 
N.-.v,, 115 

Nuben'.is utensiiia,287 
Niimerns legltiiniis,256 
Niiinmnlnrii, 267 
Niimmus, 267 
NiJiiimns modul. max- 
im i, 266 
Niiiiditiae, 61, 2H ' 
;\ii|»ii^e justae, 286 
Nupiialis, 96 
Nii|)iialis cGDna, 287 
Niitrlrii,289 
Nycielins, 109 
Nymphoea, 19 
NympliEeum, 126 

O. 

Ohices, 291 

OI)olus, 100 

Obsecratioiies, 237 

Occa, 264 

OccHlor, 120 

Occatores, 2S9 

Occidens, 128 

Ocean lis, 98, 124 

Ocrene, 244, 256, 274 

Octavae, 262 

October, 61 

Ocvpeia, 128 

Odea, 19, 32, 33 

Odrvsiiis, 105 

()p#ipiim,299 

Olitoriuiii, 17 

Ollae I'Xlares, 232 

Onasfer, 281 

Opalia, 242 
Opeconsiva, 212 
Opiiiena, 96 
Opilinnes, 289 
0[)s, 93 
Oppidiim, 225 
Optimus Maximus, 95 
Optio, 272 
Optiones, 276 
Opus incerliim 218 
Oratinnes principum, 

261 
Orbis, 278 
Orchestra, 246 
Orcus, 100 
Ordines, 271 
Ordinihiis compressis, 

276 
Ordo equester, 254 

plebeiiis, 253 
Oreades, 126 
Orion, 125 
Oscines. 233 
Oscophoria, 103 
Osiris, 122 
Ossilegiiim, 302 
Ostiarinm, 262 
Ostiariiis, 2S9 
Ostium, 290 
Otus, 125 
Ova, 294 
Ovalio. 284 
Ovile, 257 



Pabulum, 120 
PapdaKogi, 288, 289 
Paenula. 298 
Paiaiinus, 16 
Palatium, 16,20 
Pales, 120 
PaliKa, 120, 242 
Palla,298 
Palladium, 94, lOi, 112 I 



Fallantias, 114 

Pallas, 105 

Palliali, 297 

Palmus,268 

Paludamentum, 298 

Par 116 

Pariffitolium, 193 

Panathenaea, 101, 171 

Pancratium, 173 

Pandora, 107 

Panes, 130 

Panificium, 263 

Pantheon, 17 

Paphia, 106 

Paralus, 42 

Parcae, 12S 

Pares, impares, tibiae, 
247 

Parilia, 120 

Parma, 214,274 

Parnassides, 126 

Parricidii, -60 

P^ssus, 268 

Paiarens, 101 

Patella, 232 

Patellarii, 129 

Patera, 96. 300 

Paters, 232 

Pater fiduciarius, 288 

patratus, 234 
Patres conscript!, 256 
minorum gentium. 
253 
Patricii, 253 
Patrinae, 294 
Patronus, 259 
Patulcius, 93 
Pavimenta tessalata, 

290 
Pax, 122,241 
Pecudes, 266 
Peculatus, 252,260 
Peculiuui castrense, 

274 ■ 
Pecunia, 266 
Pedes, 282 
Pedicae, 260 
Pedites, 278 
Pesrasus, 26, 131 
PeFopidae, 136 
Pelops, 136 
Peloria, 91 
Penates, 129 
Perdueliionis, 260 
Peregrini, 258 
Peregrin! dii, 87 
Perireci, 189 , 

Peripetasmata, 291 
Peristromata, 291 
Perones, 298 
Perpetuae quaestiones, 

259 
Perpol, 239 
Perseus, 133 
Perticffi, 264 
Pes, 268 
Pessinuntia, 93 
Petasus, 108, 298 
Pelauristae, 244 
Petitio, 259 
Petitor, 259 
Petraeus, 98 
Phalarse, 275 
Phantasus, 130 
Phaseli, 283 
Phengites, 290 
Phiala^, 297 
Phobetor, 130 
PhcEbe, 102, 117, 124 
Pliorcils, 98 
Phylarcbi, 181 
Phyx, 32 
Pia"culum, 239 
Pierides, 126 



Pierus, 126 

Pietas, 122 

Pila, 274 

Pilentum, 266 

Fiieus,29 1.298 

Pil>unnu& 120 

Pilus primus, 272 

Pinacollieca, 291 

Pinarii, 232,235 

Piraeuii, 31 

Piscariuni, 17 

Piscatores, 289 

Piscalorii Ludi, 246 

Piscina mirahilis, 292 

Pistores, 263 

Pistrilla, 264 

Pistrinum, 264 

Pistuiii,264 

Plagii, 260 

PlaMslra,266 

Plebeii^diles, 219 

Plebiscita, 250,257, 261 

Plebs, 253 

Pleiad^^s, 108 

Pliitei, 281 

Pluio, 99 

Plums, 118 

Phivius or Pluvialis,95 
Pnvx, 32 
Pocillator, 289 
Pocula fagina, vitrea, 

&c., 297 
Podium, 247, 248 
Poscile, 31, 36 
PoeniE, 260 
Pol, 239 

Polias Minerva, 29, 104 
Policem premebaiit, 

vertebani, 244 
Pollinctores, 300 
Polus, 116 
Polyhymnia, 127 
Pumona, 119, 120 
Potppa circensis, 243 
Pons Milvius, Julius. 

&c , 16 
Ponies, 257 
Poiitituli,257 
Ponti''ex Maximus, 232 
Pi)ntific-!s, 232 
Pop;e, K1, 236 
Popina, Sv'e Caupona. 
Popular! \, 247 
Populoniff, 96 
Populum t^.are, 231 
Popiilus, 2^3 
Porta prae!o ic, decu- 

mana, &c., "^0 
Porta Carn 'juti-lis, 
&c., 15 
salutaris, 1'8 
Portenta, 233 
Porticus milliaria> 
Port isculus, 282 
Portorinm, 261 
Portumnalia, 242 
Portumnus, 125 
Postcenium, 246 
Postridiaiii, 241 
Potamides, 126 
Politii, 232,235 
Praecinctiones, 2*7 
Praecones, 252 
Praedes, 259,262 
Praedia, rustica, ut..a- 

na, 268 
Prsefecti, 277 
Praefecturae. 258 
Praefectus ^gypti 285 
annonae, 251,261 
classis, 281 
niorum, 251 
praelorio, 284,235 
urbis 251, 285 



Praefericula, 232, 3dU 
Praertcae, 300 
Praegustalor, 289 
Praemia minora, 273 
Praeriomen, 285 
Pr;esides, 285 
Praestigiatores, 244 
Praesul, 235 
I'raeior, 249, 259 
Praetorium, 278 
Prandiiim, 293 
Praia. 264 
Precationes, 236 
Precuin arbitri, 250 
Prelum, 296 
Pria[)us, 119 
Primitiae, 238 
Princip, 8,271,275,276 

278 
Principia, 278 
Proconsul, 252, 285 
Procurator, 244 
Procurator Caesaris 

252 
Prod igia, 233 
Prodlgiaiores, 234 
Profesii, 241 
Projicere in profluen- 

tujii, 260 
Proinagister, 262 
Piopraeior, 252 
Propylaea, 29 
Proqiiaistor, 252 
Prora, 282 
Prnreta, 282 
Proscenium, 216 
Proscriptio, 268 
Proserpina, 106 
Proteus, 98 
Provinciae, 258 
Prvtaneum, 184 
Psvlli, 56 
Publican!, 262 
Publicum, 262 
Pugilalus, 243 
Pugnffi simulacra, 304 
Pullarius, 233 
Puili, 233 
Pnlmentarius, 289 
Pulpitum, 247 
Puh'inar, 294 
Pulvinaria, 237, 266 
Pulvinus, 293 
Puncium (omne tulit), 

270 
Puppis, 282 
Puleal, 17 
Pnticulae, 303 
Pylae Caspiae, 46 
Pyloiis, 105 
Pyra, 302 
Pyramis Cestii, 20 
Pyrakmon, 107 
Pvthius, 101 
[rPyxis or Pyxidula, 30C 

i Q. 

'^. adrans, 266, 29S 
tc-iLlrantal, 296 
Quau igae, 266 
Quai'ri-'enaria, 272 
Quadi ir, mes, 282 
Qua;sitor».s, 259 
Qiiaestioi.e. 259 
Quaestor srcri palatJ 

250, 285 
Quaestores, 2^'^ 
Quaestorium. 27^* 
Quartarius, 268 
Quaternio, 295 
Quinarius, 267 
Quincunx, 265, 2-\ 
Quindeceniviri, 23* 

240 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



317 



Quingenaria, 272 
Qiiinquatria, 104, 171. 

241,242 
Quinquennia, 238 
Quiiiqueviri, 252 
Quinlana via, 2bO 
Qiiintiliani, 235 
Qiiintilis, 61 
Quirinalia, 241 
Qiiirinales, 235 
Quiiiiius lVIars,J05 
Qiiiriles, 11, 16 
Qiiiritium jus, 258 

R. 

Rail 11 in, 264 

Uastruni. 264 

Rectae viae, 275 

Rector, 282 

Recuperatores, 259 

Rejiia, 233, 234 

Regina Sacroriim, 234 
Yiaruni, 16 

Rpjeijatns, 260 

Religio, 229 

Keliginne solvere, 238 

Reiigiosi dies, 241 

Renianci()iitio, 287 

Renii, Reniiges, 2S2 

Repeiutidaruui cri- 
men, 252, 260 

Rpposiloria,294 

Repolia, 267 

Rcpiidiiiin, "587 

Kescripla, 261 

Res Mancipi, Nee 
• Manci()i. 268 
privaise, 268 

Respnhlica, ne quid 
(letrinienti capiat,. 
251, 257 

Retiarii, 214 

Reus, 259 

Rex convivii, 295 
sacnficulus, 231 
sacrorum, '232, 234 

Rhanmetisis, 2r)2 

lihainnusiii, 117* 

kneM,91 

Rhrda, 266 

Rica, Ricinium,298 

Rohigalia, 212 

Rngatio, 259 

Rogus, 302 

Roma, 119 

Romaica,2l6 

Rorarii, 276 

Rosa, Sub, 206 

Rosaceum, 299 

Rostra, 17,282,302 

Rudentes, 282 

Rudera, 15 

Runcatores. 289 

Runcina, 120 

• 
S. 

Sabnrra, 282 

Sacella,230 

Saceriodes, 236 

Sacra genlilitia, 288 

Sacrameiitiim, 270, 271 

Sacrificiii, 2M7 

Sacronim jus, 258 
Sagitarii, 276 

Sagum. 298 
Salarium, 262 
Saligeniia, 106 
Salii, 105, 232,235,241 
Salinge, 262 
Saltus, 243 
Salus, 118 
Samhuca, 217 
Sandapila, 300 
Sandfpilarii, 300 



Sapa, 296 
iSarcinae, 277 
Sarcophagus, 302 
Sarculum,264 
Sarracum, 266 
Satisdare, 259 
Sator, 91 

Saturnalia, 91, 242 
Saturnia, 91 
Saturnns, 91 
ftaxo Tarpeio dejicere, 

260 
Scahplla, 299 
Scal«, 247, 260, 280 
Scalmus, 2o2 
Sceiia, 2i6 
Scheie, 284 
Scias, 36 
Scissor, 289 
Scorpio, 281 
Scriboe, 252, 277 
Scriptura, 262 
Scutica, 260 
Scutum. 244, 274 
Scvlla, 132 
Scyphi, 297 
Seces[»itae, 232 
Sectio, 268 

Securi percutere, 260 
Securis, 232, 248, 264 
Secutores, 244 
Sedilia, 282 
Segetia, Seia. 120 
Selecii, 87 
Sella, 248,291 
Sella curulis, 235, 250, 
254 
portatoria, 254 
Sembella, 267 
Senientina, 241 
Semis, 266 
Semones, 87 
Ssnacula, 18 
Senatus auctoritas.256 
consulium,256,261 
Senio, 295 
Sentina, 282 
Septa, 257 
Septunx, 266 
Serae, 291 
Serapea, 123 
Serapis, 123 
Septemviri, 234 
Septicollis, 15, 225 
Sepiilchrum, 302 
Seres, 298 
Serra, 276 
Servi terrae, 290 
Servitutes praediorum, 
268 

Servitus, 260, 268 

Servus admissionalis, 
cubicularius, &c., 
289 

Sestertius, 267 

Sestertium, 267 

Seva, 232 

Sexcenaria, 272 

Sextans, 266 

Sexlitrius, 268 

Sextilis, 61 

Sicae, 196 

Sicarii, 196 

Sicarios, crimen inter, 
260 

Sigtna, 291, 294 

Signa, 233,272 

Signiferi, 272 

Sileni, 130 

Silenus. 110 

Silicernium, 304 

Simpuliim, 232 

Sinister, 233 

Sirentiusse, 126 



Sistrum, 119, 218 
Silella,257 
Smegmata, 299 
Sminthae, 42 
Smintheus, 42, 101 
Socci, 299 
Societas, 262 
Socii, 277 
Sodales, Tilii, 232, 236 

Augustales, 236 
Sodtiliiates, 235 
Sol, 114 
Solaria, 240 
Solarium, 60,291 
Soleae, 299 
Solennia, 237 
Solidus,267 
Somnus, 130 
Soracle,'l20 
Soranus,100 
Snrs, 267 
Sortes, 240 
Sortilegi, 240 
Sortiiio, 257 
Sospita, 96 
Spathae, 274 
Specilium, 263 
Spectaciila, 243 
Specula, 290,299 
Specularia, 290 
Spes, 122 

S!)haeristerium, 293 
Spina circi, 242, 243 
Spoliarium, 248 
Spondee, 294 
Sponsalia, 286 
Sponsio, 286 
S()onsor, 95 
Sportula, 295 
Spurius, 288 
Stadium, 18, 32, 268 
Stapiae, 266 
SiatP-, 237 

Stater Daricus, 213 
Static), 280 
Stator, 95 
Statumen, 15 
Statumina, 282 
Stega, 2t,2 
StercnIiMus, Stercu- 

tius, 91, 120 
Steropes, 107 
Slheno, 130 
Stibadium, 294 
Stipendio privari,275 
Stipendium, 236, 274 
Slipulatio, 286 
Stiva,264 
Slola,298 
Stragiila,294, 291 
Straiigulare, 260 
Strategi, 196 
Strenae, 241 
Sirenua, 120 
Sirigiles, 293, 303 
Stroi)pi, 282 
'Siructor, 289, 295 
Strymonius, 105 
Suariuin, 17 
Subceniurio,272 
Subdivale, 290 
Subitarii, 271 
Stibligaculum, 244 
Subsignani, 272 
Subsolanus, 128 
Subucula, 297 
Succina, 297 
Sudes, 280, 281 
SutlVagii jus, 258 
Sugsrestus, 17, 247 
Suile, 292 
Summanus, 100, 129, 

242 
Suovetaurilia, 105,239 



Supplicationes, 237,283 
S.ipplicia,237 
Symbola,280, 299 

T. 

Tabellae, 257 - 

legitinicP, 286 
Tablinuin,291 
Tabula auciionaria, 
268 

lusoria, 295 

proscripiionis, 268 
Tabulae duodecim, 261 

-votivap. 238 
Tahularia, 17 
Tabularium, 17,256 
Ta^diiier, 289 
Tajnia, 282 
Talaria, 108 
Talentum, 267 
Tali, 240, 2P5 
Talio, 260 
Tantalides, 136 
Tartarus, 99 
Tatietisis, 252 
Teifulae, 291 
Tclesphorus, 118 
Tell us, 93, 112 
Teino, 264, 266 
Tempestas, 242 
Tempi a, 230, 233 
Tepidarium, 293 
Terebra, 281 
Tergemina, 102 
Terminalia, 119, 241 
Terminus, 119 
Ternio, 295 
Terfisichore, 127 ' 
Teruncius, 267 
Tesselatum, 290 
Tessera, 280, 295 
Tesserae, 295 
Tesserarii, 280 
Testa, 296 
Tesiamenti jus, 258 
Testamento, 268 
Test udo, 278, 280,281 
Tethys, 121 
Textrina. 264 
Thalia, 127 
Theatra, 18 
Themis, 117, 124 
Thensa, 266 
Theriotrophium, 292 
Thermae, 19, 290 
Theseus, 60, 134 
Thesmophora, 27 
Thesmolhetae, 181 
Thetis. 98 
Thorax, 274 
Thraces, 244 
Thriambus, 109 
Thnrarium, 232 
TlMiribulum, 232 
Thnrius, 105 
Thymbraeus, 101 
Thyoneus, 109 
Thyrsiger, 109 
Thvrsus, no 
Tilii;e,dexlrae,s;nisir8B 

119,239 
Tibialia, 299 
Tibicines. 236, 300 
Tinctoria, 264 
Tiiictur.i, 264 
Tintiimabula,266, 291 
1'isiphone, 128 
Tilaja, 91, 112 
Tilanides, 91, 117 
Tiinli, 2S9 
Titulus,3p2 
Toga, 248,297 
Candida, 248 
fusa, 297 



318 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Toga, praefexta, 233. 
234, 235, 249, 250' 
284, 2<)7 
pulla, 297 
vinlis,297, 299 

Togati, 297 

Tollere infantem, 287 

Tonientum, 294 

Tonsores, 289 

Topiarii, 292 

Torcular, 296 

Tnrcniarium, 296 

Toreutnata, 297 

Torques aureie, 275, 
299, 300 

Torus, 291 

Trabea, 233, 281 

Tragularii, 276 

Traha, 264, 266 

Tralalitia, 249 

Transtra, 282 

Transvectio, 256 

Triarii, 271, 272, 275, 
276, 278 

Tribula, 264, 266 

Tribunal, 17,249,257,278 

Tribuni inilituni, 251 
plebis, 250 

Tribus, urbanse, rusti- 
C8e, 252 

Tributa, 261 

Tributa comitia,257,261 

Tricennaria, 272 
Tridinium. 291,293,304 
Tridens, 244 
Triens, 266 
Trieterica, 109 
Triformis, 102 
Triga, 266 
Trigonon, 217 
Trinundinum, 261 
Tripes, 294 
Tiiplex acies, 275 
Tripodes, 232 
Tripiidium, 233 
Triremes, 282 
Triticum, 264 
Triton, 98, 125 
Tritonia, 104 
Triumphalis lex, 283 
Tritimphus, 283, 284 • 
TriumvHri, 252, 267 
Trivia, 10^ 
Tropsa, 19, 199 
Trutin», 2f6 



TubiE, 232. 239, 272 
Tubiciiies, 236, 274 
Tiibilustrium, 241,242 
Tiillianuin, 260 
Tunica, 297 

angnsticlavia, 256, 
298 

laticlavia, 256, 298 

recta, 2S7 
Tumultiiarii, 271 
Tumultus, 7,271 
Tumulus, 302 
Turmae, 272, 277 
Turricula, 295 
Turris, 278, 281 
Tutela, 282 
Tympana, 266 
Tympanum, 119,218 
Typhoeus, or Typhon, 

122, 125, 132 



Ildones, 299 
TTItimum, 257 
TTltor, 105 
Unciae, 266 
Ifiictiiarium, 293 
Unguenta, 299 
Unio, 295 
Unxia,96 
Uragus, 272, 277 
Urania, 106, 127, 
Uranus, 91, 113 
Urhs, 225 
Urceus, 232 
Urna, 268 

feral is, 302 
Urnae lachrymales, 303 
Usinum, 299 
Ustrina, Uslrinum, 303 
Usuca[)io, 268, 286 
UsurH,267 
Usurpatio, 287 
Usus, 268,286 
Utensilia,287 
Utres, 296 
Uxor, 287 
Uxoriuni, 262 



Vacatio honorata, 271, 

275 
Vacuna, 120 
Vades, 259 
Vagina, 232 



Valetudinarium, 280 

Vallonia, 120 

Vallum, 280 

Vasa murrhina, 263, 
297 
sacra, 232 
sculpta, 297 
unguentaria, 303 

Vates, 16 

Vaticanus, 16 

Vaticinatores, 240 

Vectigalia, 261 

Vedius, 95 

Vehae, 266 

Vejovis, 95 

Vela, 282 

Veliles, 271,274, 276 

Venalitiarii, 289 

Venatio, 243 

Veneficii crimen, 260 

Veneralia, 241 

Venti, 128 

Ventorum Ara, 116 

Ventus textilis, 298 

Venus. 105, 295 
Genetris, 242 
Marina, 125 

Verbera, 260 
Vernae, 285 

Verticordia, 106 
Vertumnus, 119 
Vespera, 60 
Vespillones, 300 
Vesta, 18, 93, 230, 242 
Vestales, 113,232,236 
Vestalia, 241, 242 
Vestes Coae, Sericae, 

298 
Vestiarii, 289 
Vestis stragula, 266, 

291 
Vestibulum,290, 300 
Veto, 250 
Vexillarii, 272 
VexJIlationes, 285 
Vexillum, 272, 275 
Vexillum purpureum, 

282 
Via Quintana, 280 
Sacra, Appia, &c., 
15 
Viae, 15, 16 
Viaies, 129 
Viatores, 250 
Vicarii, 285 



Vicennalia, 238 

Vicesima, 262 

Vici, 17 

Victimse, 237 

Victiaiarii, 236 

Victor, 95 

Victoria, 120 

Victrix, 106 

Vicus albus, &c., 17 

Vigiles, 280 

Vigil is, 59, 240, 280 

Villa urbana, rusticft 
&c. 292 

Villicus' 292, 289 

Villicus amphiiheatri 
247 

Vina!ia,242 

Vinaria cella, 296 

Vincula, 260, 299 

Vindemiatores, 289 

Vindicatio, 259 

Vindicta, 289 

Vineae, 198,280 

Vinum Falernum, Cae- 
cubum, &c., 296 

Virgo, 117, 118 
maxima, 236 

Virgis,260 

Viri epulares, 234 

Virtus, 122 

Vis publicae, 260 

Visceratio, 304 
Viiisator, 91 
Vitrea, 263 
Vitrea specularia, 290 
Viirum, 263 
Vitta, 232, 299 
Viva voce, 268 
Vivarium, 292 
Volones, 271 
Volusia, 120 
Vomer, 264 
Vota, 238 
Voti reus, 238 
Votivi iudi,246 
Vulcanalia, 107, 242 
Vulcanus, 107, 108 
Vulpium combustio, 

112 
Vulsella, 263 
Vulturius, 101 

Z. 

Zephyrus, 116, 128 
Zona. 266 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



I^bana, 50 
A-bdera, 21 
A.bsvnthi. or Apsynthi. 

21 
A.byd()S, 21, 47 
\byla, 9, 57 
Abyssinia, 55 
Acarnania, 24, 26 
Ace, or Aco, 50 
Achaia, 34 
Aciiarnae, 28 
Achelous, 21, 26, 41 
Acheron, 25 

Acidalia (fount), 27 

Aciris, 13 

Acradina, 40 

Acritas Prom. 33 

Acro-Ceraiinia, 24 

Acro-Cerauiiii, Mon- 
ies, 21, 22, 24 

Acro-Corinthus, 34 

Acie, 28 

Actiuni, 26 

Actium Prom. 25, 26 

Adraiiiyiiium, 47 

Adrianopolis, 21 

Adrumelum, 57 

Adulis, 55 

^:i, 46, 135 

JEMi, 6 

jEgades or Agates, 41 

iEgseuin Mare, 21 

^ge, 34 

^giria, 34, 42 

^gissa or ^gissus, 8 

iEifium, 34 

.•Egos Polaiiios, 21 

Jjlgusa, 41 

JEgypU loirens, 53 

^gyptiis, 53 

^lanites Sinus, 53 

.^none, 42 

iEnos, 21 

J^nus, 7 

.Eolioe Insiilse, 41 

J3()lis (ir TEolia, 47 

.iEstuarium Iiunae, 40 

^Ethiopia, 55 

iEthria, 42 

/Etna, 41 

.Etolia, 26 

Africa, 53 

Interior, 57 
Propria, 56 

Aganippe, 27 

Agathyrsi, 5 

Agrigentum, 41 

Agylla, 10 

Aiabanda, 48 

Aiani, 46 

Alba Longa, 11, 225 

Albania, 48 

Albanise Pylae, 46 

Albanus Lacus, 11 

Albis, 6 

Albiilus Lacus, 11 

Albiirnus, 13 

Aieria, 40 

Alesia, 6 

Alexandria, 48, 54 

AlfeniiB, 12 

Vlgidum, 11 



Allemanni, 5 
Allia, 11 
Allobroges, 6 
Alos, 24 

Alpes, Graiae, &,c,, 7 
Alpheus, 34 

Allis, 34 

Amanus, 48 

Amardus, 44 

Amasia, 47 

Anibracia, 25 

Anibracius Sinus, 21 

Amida, 46 

Arnisus, 47 

Aniiternnm, 11 

Aniphipolis, 22 

Arnphissa, 26 

Ainphryssus, 24 

Ampsagiis, 57 

Amsanctus, 12 

Amyclae, 36 

Anactorium, 26 

Anamurium, 49 

Anaphe, 42 

Anapus, 40 
I Anas, 9 
, Anchesmus, 25,28 

Ancona, 10 

Ancyra, 48 

Aridros, 42 

Angli, 5 

Anio, 10, 11 

Anlhela, 27 

Anticyra, 27 

Atiti-Libanus, 50 

Anliochia, 48, 50 
in Pisidia, 48 
in Syria, 50 

Antirrhium, 25 

Antiunn, 11 

Anxur, 11 

Aous, 24 

Apamea, 48 

on Rhyndacus, 47 
on Marsyas, 48 
on Orontes, 50 

Aphetse, 24 

Apia, 34 

Apollonia, 20, 22, 56 

Apulia, 12 

Aquae Sextise, 6 

Aquileia, 9 
, Aquinutn, 11 
*Aquitani, 6 

Aquilania, 6 

Arabia, 53 

Arabicus Sinus, 53 

Arachosia, 44 

Aracthus, 25 

Aracynthiis, 26 

Aragus, 46 

Arar, 7 

Ararat, 44, 46 

Araxes, or Phasis, 46 

Araxes, 44 

Arbela, 53 

Arbiti Montes, 44 

Arcadia, 34 

Arcati Regio, 43 

Ardea, 11 

Arduenna Sylva, 7 

Arelhon, 25 

Arevaci; 8 



Argaeus Mons, 48 

Argia, 34 

Argos, in Argolis, 34 

Amphilochius, 26 
Aria, 44, 46 
Aria Pal us, 44 
Arimathea, 51 
Aritninum, 10 
Armenia, 46 
Arujorica, 6 
Arnus, 10 
Arpi, 12 
Arpinum, 11 
Arsacidae, 44 
Arsinne, 53, 54, 56 
Arsissa Palus, 46 
Artabrum Prom. 9 
Artacoana, 46 
Arlaxata, 46 
Arteiiiisium, 42 
Arza, 46 
Ascra, 27 
Asculum, 10, 12 
Asia, 43 
Asia Minor, 46 
Asinarius, 41 
Aspendus, 48 
Asphaltites Lacus 51, 

52 
Assyria, 53 
Astaboras, 55 
Atalanta, 27 
Aternum, 13 
Athenajum Prom. 12 
Athesis, 10 
Athos, 22 
Aiiiium, 13 

Atlanticus Oceanus, 57 
Atlantis, 57 
Atlas, 57 
Atropatene, 44 
Atropatia, 44 
Attica, 28 
Aufidus, 12, 13 
Augusta Emerita, 9 

Taurinorum, 9 

Vindelicorum, 7 
Auguslodunum, 6 
Aulis, 27, 42 
Aurea Chersonesus, 3, 

43 
Ausunia, 9 
Auxume, 55 
Aventinus, &c., 15 
Avernus Lacus, 12 
Axius, 22 

B. 

Babylonia, 52 
Bactra, 46 
Bactriana, 46 
Bsetica, 8, 9 
Baetis, 9 
Baffdat, 52 
Bagradas, 57 
Baise, 12 

Baleares Insulse, 40 
Barce, 56 
Barium, 13 
Basaniles Mons, 54 
Basilicata, 13 
Bastarnicae Alpes. 8 
Bastuli, 9 



Batavi, 6 
Bebrycia, 47 
Belgoe, 6 
Belgica, 7 
Benacus, 10 
Beneventum, 12 
Beraea, 50 
Berenice, 53, 54,56 
Berytus, 50 
Bethel, 51 
Bethesda (pool), 53 
Bethlehem, 51 
Bethsaida, 50 
Bethsan, 51 
Bibracte, 6 
Bilbilis, 8 
Bithyiiia, 47 
Boeotia, 27 
Boii, 10 
Boium, 26 
Bononia, 10 
Borysthencs, 5, 6 
Bosphorus, 6, 20, 21 
Bozra, 52 
Bradauus, 13 
Brauron, 28 
Brigantes, 38 
Brigantinus Lacus, 6 
Britannia, 38 
Brivates Portus, 6 
Brixia, 9 

Brutidiisium, 13, 16 
Bruttia-tellus, 13 
Bruttii, 13 
Bruttium, 13 
Bura, 34 
Bathrotum, 25 
Buxtntum, 13 
Byrsa, 56 
Byzantium, 20 

C. 

Cabira, 48 
Cadmea, 27 
C«re, 10 

Caesarea, 7, 51, 57 
C'aesarea Augusta, 8 

ad Argaeiim, 48 

Phili()pi, 50 
Caieta, 11 
Calabria, 13, 14 
Calabria-citra, 13 
Calagurris, 8 
Calaris, 40 
Calauria, 42 
Calle, 8 

Callipolis, 13,21 
Calor (fl.)„12 
Catpas, 47 
Calpe, 9, 57 
Calycadnua, 48 
Calydon, 26 
Cambunii Montes, ?I 

22, 24 
Camerinum, 10 
Camicus, 41 
Campania, 11 
Camyrns, 42 
Cana, 47 
Canae, 50 
Canaria, 57 
Cannae. 13 

31 » 



320 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Canopic'jm Ostium, 

&c., 54 
Cantabri, 9 
Canlii, 38 
Caniisinin, 13 
CapfTnaiiin, 50 
Caphareus, 42 
Capitoliims, &c. 16 
Cap|)adocia, 48 
Caprese, 40 
Capsa, 57 
Capua, 11 
Oarauibis, 47 
(;;nratiibiicis, 3 
Cardia, 21 
(;arduchi, 53 
Caidiichi Monies, 46 
Caria, 48 
Cartnauia, 44 
L'arniel, oO 
Garni, 9 
Carpales, 8 
Carpathns, 42 
Carphia, 26 
Carrhae, 52 
Carteia, 9 
Carihago, 56 
Carthago Nova, 8 
Carystns, 42 
Casia Regi.s 3, 43 
Casilinnin, 11 
Caspiffi Pylae, 46 

Caspiuni Mare, 6, 44 

Cassandria, 22 

Cassiterides, 38, 40 

Castalia,27 

Castruin Minervae, 13 

Catabathnms, 54 

(;atti, 5 

('aiicasus, 46 

Caudinoe Furculae, 12 

Caiidiuin, 12 

Caulon, 15 

Caysler, 47 

Cebenna, 7 

Cecropia, 28 

Celtfe,6 

Celtiberi, 8 

Celtica, 6 

Celticutn, 9 

Cenchreae, 34 

Cenomanni, 9 

Centum Ceilae, 10 

Ceos, 42 

Cephalenia, 41 

Cephissus,26, 27, 28 

Cerarniciis, 2'i, 32 

Cerasus, 47 

Cerlialus, 13 

Cert a, 57 

Chaberis, 43 

Chsernnea, 27 

Clialcedon, 47 

Chalcidice, 22 

ChHkis,22, 26, 42 

ChaldaeM, 52 

C'lalvbes, 47 

ClialNbDii, 50 

Chaoiiia, 24, 25 

(Miarrati. 52 

Chary bdis, 13 

Clieloniles. 33 

(.'hersoriesus Cinibri 
ca, 5 
Aure&,3, 43 
Taiirvca, 5 
Thracige, 20 

Cherusci, 5 

Chi 1 sera, 48 

Chios, 42 

Choaspes, 44 

Chrysoceras, 20 

Chrysopolis, 47 

Ch'yyorrhoas, 50 



Cichyrus, 25 ' 

Cicones, 21 
Cilicia, 48 
Cinibri, 5 
Ciininericus Bospho- 

rus, 6, 46 
Ciminerii, 46 
Gimmeriuni, 12 
Circeii, 11 
Cirrha, 27 

Cisalpina Gallia, 6, 9 
Cispadana, 9 
Cissa, 21 
Cithaeron,26, 28 
Citinai, 53 
Clanius, 12 
Clazoinetiae, 47 
Clusiuni, 10 
Clypea, 57 
Cneinis, 27 
Cnidus, 48 
Cocytus, 25 
Codanus Sinus, 6 . 
Coele-Syria, or 

, Coelo-Syria, 50 
Ccelins, 16 
Colchis, 46 

Collis horlulorum, 16 
Colonia Patricia, 9 
Colophon, 47 

Cnlossae, 48 

Coniagene, 50 
Coniana, 48 

Coniaria, 43 

Coniata, 7 

Complutum, 8 

Coniiiin, 10 

Consentia, 13 

Cnnsianlinopolis, 20 

Copais Lacus, 27 

Coptos, 54 

Cnracesiuni, 48 

Coras, 26 

Corc.yra, 41 

Corduba, 9 

Corfiniuin, 10 

Corinthia, 34 

Corinthiacus Sinus,21, 
25 

Corinthus, 34 

Corioli, 11 

Coroiiea, 27 

Corsica, 40 

Corycus, 47 

Cos, 42 

Cosetani, 8 

Cotiaris, 3, 43 

Coitiae, 7 

Cragus, 48 

Craihes, 15 

Cremasie, 24 

Creinera, 11 

Crenina, 48 

Cremona, 9 

Creta, 43 

Creusa, 27 

Crimisus, 41 

Crissa,27 

Crissseus Sinus, 25 

Criu-Metopon, 5, 47 

Croninu), 34 

Crotona, 13 

Cruslumerinm, 11 

Ctesiphon, 46 

Cnmae, 12 

Cnnaxa, 52 

Cures, 11 

Curetes, 43 

Curia, 7 ' 

Ciistufo, 9 

Cyclade's, 42 

Cydnus, 48 

Cydoiiia, 43 

Cyllenc Mons, 34 



Cynocephali, 124 
Cynos, 27 
Cynos Cephale, 24 
Cynthus Mons, 42 
Cyprus, 53 
Cyrenaica, 56 
Cyrene, 56 
Cyrnos, 40 
Cyropolis, 46 
Cyrus, 44, 46 
Cythera, 41 
Cythus, 42 
Cytiniuni, 26 
Cyzicus, 47 

D. 

Daci, 8 
Dacia, 8 
Dactyli, 43 
Dalmatia, 8 
Damascus, 50 
Danapris, 5 
Danubius, 7 
Daphne, 50 
Dardania, 8 
Daunia, 12 
Decapolis, 51 
Decelia,28 
Delium, 27 
Delos, 42 
Delphi, 27 
Delphinum,28 
Delta, 54 
Denietrias, 24 
Derbe, 48 
Deserta Libyae, 57 
Dindymus, 48 
Dioclea, 8 
Diospolis, 51, 54 
Dirce Mons, 28 
Dodona,95 
Dolonei, 21 
Dorion, 24 
Doris, 26 
Doriscus, 21 
Drangiana, 44 
Drepanum, 41 
Drilo, 22 

Dromus Achillei, 6 
Dryopes, 26 
Dulichium, 41 
Duranius, 7 
Dnrius, 8, 9 
Dynie, 34 
Dyrrachium, 22 

Ebal, 51 
Eboracum, 3S 
Ebusus, 40 
Ecbatana, 44 
Echinades, 41 
Edessa, 22, 52 
Edetani, 8 
Edonis, 22 
Egnatia, 13 
Eion, 21 
Elatsea, 27 
Elaver, 7 
Elea, 13, 47 
Elephantine, 54 
Eleusis, 28 
Eleutheropolis, 51 
Elis, 34 
Eiyiiiais, 44 
Elymander, 44 
Emathia, 22 
Emesa, 50 
Emmaus, 51 
Ephesus, 47 
Ephyra, 2:., 34 
Epidamnus, 22 
Epidaurus, 8,34 
Epipolae, 40 



Epirus,21, 24 
Equotuticunn, 12 
Eretria, 42 
Eridanus, 9, 10 
Erigon, 22 
Erineum, 26 
Erynianthus Mons, 34 
Erylhrae, 47 
Erythraeum Mare, 44 
Erytopolis, 36 
Etruria, 10 
Eubcea, 42 
Evenus, 26 
Euganei, 9 
Eupatoria, 47 
Euphrates, 48 
Euripus, 25,27,42 
Eurnpa, 4 
Eurotas, 36 
Eurymedon, 48 
Euxinus, 5, 21 
Exploratio ad Mer- 

rium, 57 
Ezion-Geber, 53 



Falerii, 10 

Falisci, 10 

Fidenae, 11 

Flanaticus Sinus, 7 

Flavia Csesariensis, 4( 

Florentia, 10 

Formias, 11 

Fortunatse Insulae, 3, 5* 

Foruni Julii, 6 

Fossa Trajani, 54 

Fretum Fossje, 40 
Gaditanum, or 
Herculeum, 9 
Siculum, 40 

Frisii, 5 

Fucinus Lacus, 10 

G. 

Gabara, 50 
Gabii, 11 
Gadara, 50, 52 
Gades, 9 
Gaetnlia, 57 
Galatia, 6, 7,48 
Galesus, 13 
Galil3ea,50 
Gallia, 6 

Galloruin Portas, 8 
Gamala, 52 
Ganges, 43 
Gang^'ticus Sinus, 43 
Gangra, 48 
Garaniantes, 57 
Garganus, 12 
Gargarus, 47 
Garumna, 6, 7 
Gaugamela 53 
Gaulon, 52 
Gaulos, 41 
Gaza, 44, 52 
Gedrosia, 44 
Geloni, 5 
Genua, 10 
Gera, 52 
Geraestus, 42 
Geranii Monies, 26 
Gerizim, 51 
Germania, 5, 6 

Inferior, 7 

Superior, 7 
Germanicus Oceani' 

cus, 6 
Getse, 8 
Glaucus, river, 49 

Sinus, 48 
Glycys Limen, 25 
Gnussus, 43 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



331 



Gobaeum Prom. 6 
Goniphi, 24 
Gonmis, 24 
Gordium, 4*^ 
Gortynia,43 
Goshen, 54 
Grascia, 20, 21 
Graecia Profiria, 25 
(JraiiicUs, 47 
Griiiiieiituii), 13 
Gyarus, 42 
Gyitona. 24 
Gytheuin, 36,38 

H. 

Hadriaticmii Mare, 21 

Haiiruiiientiun or 
Adrumeiuiii, 57 

Hfeiims, 8, 20,21,22 

Halcyoneuin Mare, 25 
•Halesus (river), 47 

Haliaciiion, 22 

Halicarnassus, 48 

Halcmiiesus, 42 

Halys, 47 

Haiiiaxobii. 5 

Hebriis, 21 

Hebrides, or Ebudse,40 

Hecatorripylos, 44. 54 

Helena, 42 

HelicH, 34 

Helicon, 26,27 

Helissus, 34 

Hellas, 21, 25 

Hellespnntiis, 21 

Heliopolis, 50, 55 

Heiorns, 41 

Uelos, 36 

Helvelii, 6, 

Hephsestia, 42 

Heptanoniis, 54 

Heptapylos, 27 

Heraclea, !3, 21,47 

Herciilaneiiiii, 12 

Herculis Coluninae, 9, 

57 

Leburni Pnrius, 10 

MonoBci Porlns, 10 

Pronioninriiuri, 15 

Hercynia Sylva, 5, 8 

Herdoiiia, 12 

Herniiones, 5 

Herinnn, 50 

Heritiundiirii, 5 

Heriiius, 47 

Heroopoiis, 54 

Heroopolites Sin. 53 

Heruli, 5 

Hesperia, 8, 9 

Hesperides, 56 

Hesperidiim, Insulse, 4, 
57 

Hesperis, 56 

Hexapolis, 26 

Hibernia, 40 

Hiera|)olis, 50 

Jfiercsoiyriia, 51 

Himera (town), 41 

Hiinera (river), 41 

Hippo, 13 

Mi[)po Regius, 57 

Hippocrene, 26, 27 

Hirpiiii, 12 

Hispalis, 9 

Hispania, 8 

Histria, 10 

Horeb, 53 

Hydrnntuin, 13 

Hymeitus, 26, 28 

Hypanis, 6 

Hypata, 21 

Hyperborei, 3 

flyrcania, 44 

Hvrcanium Mare, 46 



Iberia, 8, 46 

Iberus, 9 

Icaria, 42 

Iceni, 38 

Ichnusa, 40 

Iconiiim, 48 

Ida, 43, 46 

IduMiea, 52, 53 

lerne or Hibernia, 40 

Ilerda, 8 

Ilergeles, 8 

Ilissus,28 

Ilium, 46 

Illyricum, 7, 8, 21 

Ilva, 40 

Imaus Mons, 3, 43 

Inibarus Mons, 44 

Imbrus, 42 

Inachus. 34 

India, 43 

Indus, 43 

Iiisubres, 9 

Insulae ante Tapro- 

banaiii, 4 

Hesperidum, 4 
lolchos, 24 
Ionia, 47 

Ionium Mare. 21, 25 
los, 42 
Iris, 47 
Isaurse, 48 
Isauria, 48 
Isnienus, 27 
Issus, 48 

Isler (Danube), 7, 8 
Istria, 8, 10 
Isuriuin, 38 
Itabyrius, 51 
ilalia, 9 
Italica, 9 
Ithaca, 41 
Ithonie, 36 

J. 

Jabadii Insula, 3, 53 
Janiculuni, 16 
.lapygia, 12 
.Tapygium Prom. 13 
Jaxartes, 46 
Jezreel, 50 
Joppa, 51 
.Jordan, 52 
Joiupata, 50 
Judaea, 50 
.luliffi Alpes, 7 
Junonis Promont. 9 

K. 

Kibora, 8 



Lacinium, 15 
Laconia, 36 
Laconicus Sin. 36 
Ladou, 34 
Lagaria. 13 
Lamia, 24 
Lampsacus, 47 
Laodicea, 48 
Lapithae, 24 
Larissa, 24 
Larius, 10 
Latiuin, 11 
Laioimae, 40 
Laurentum, 11 
Laurius Mons, 26 
Laus, 13 
Laus Sinus, 13 
Laviniiim, 11 
Lebedaea, 27 
LechEeuni, 34 
Lelege». 47 
Leleg'A. 188 



Lemanus Lacus, 6 
Lemanis Porlus, 38 
Lemnos, 42 
Leinovices, 6 
Leontes, 50 
Leontium, 41 
Leptis Magna, 56 
Lesbos, 42 
Lessus, 21 
Lethe, 25 
Leuc'adia, 41 
Leucas, 25, 26, 41 
Leucate, 26, 41 
Leucopelra, 13, 41 
Leuctra, 27 
Libanus, 50 
Liburnia, 7, 8 
Libya, 55, 57 
Libyssa, 47 
Liiier, 6, 7 
Ligures, 10 
LigusTlcus Sinus, 10 
Ligustides, 7 
Lilaeum, 26 
Lilybaeum, 40, 41 
Lindus, 42 
Lingones, 10 
Lipara, 41 
Liris, 10, 11 
Liternum, 12 
Locri Epicnemidii, 
Opuntii, Ozolae, 
26,27 
Lncris, 26 
Londinum, 38 
Longobardi, 5 
Lotojjhagi, 56 
Lucania, 13 
Luceria, 12 
Lucrinus Lacus, 12 
Lugdunensis, 6 
Lugdunum, 6 
I-una, 10 

Lunae Monies, 4, 54 
Lusitania, 8, 9 
Lutetia, 6 
Lycannia, 48 
Lycaens Mons, 36 
Lychnidus, 22 
Lycia, 48 
Lycus, 47, 48 
Lydda, 51 
Lvdia, 47 
Lydias, 22 
Lyrnessus, 47 
i>ysimachia, 21 
Lystra, 48 

M. 

Macedonia, 21 
Macoraba, or Mecca, 53 
Macra, 10 
Madytos, 21 
Maeander, 47 
Maenalus Mons, 36 
Mseoiiia, 47 
Maeoiis Palus, 3, 6 
Magna Graecia, 11 
Magnesia, 24, 48 
Magnum Promonlo- 

rium, 43 
Magnus Sinus, 43 
Makrinoros, 26 
Ma lea, 33, 36 
Malevenlum, 12 
Malia, 24 
Maliacus Sinus, 21,24, 

25 
Mandubii, 6 
Mantinea, 34 
Mantua. 9 
Maracanda, 46 
Marathon, 28 
Marcianopolis, 8 



Marcomanni, 5 
Mardii, 44 
Mardus, 44 
Mareotis, 54 
Mariana, 40 
Mariiiinae Alpes,'7 
Marniarica, 56 
Marrubium, 10 
Marsi, 10 
Marsyas, 48 
Masius Mons, 46 
Massaesyli, 57 
Massilia, ae, 6, 7 
Massyli, 57 
Matinoruni oppidum, 

40 
Mauritania, 57 
Maxima Caesariensia 

40 
Mazaca, 48 
Meat^, 38 
Media, 44 
Mediolanuiii, 6, 9 
Megalopolis, 34, 47 
Megara, 28 
Mpgaris, 28 
Melanis Sinus, 21 
Melt.s, 2U, 21 
Melibcea,24 
Melite, 41 
M. Ins, 42 
Melpus, 13 
Memphis, 54 
Menapii, 7 
Meiiuihias, 4 
Mercurii Promonto- 

rium, 57 
Merop, 55 
Mesembria, 20 
Mesopiiiamia, 52 
Messana, H 
Mes.-fapia, 13 
Messene, 36 
Messenia, .36 
Messeniacus Sinus, 36 
Mestus, i q. Nestua 

20,21 
Metaponlum, 13 
Metaurus, 10 
Methone, 22, 36 
Melhymna, 42 
Miletus, 47 
Mimas, 47 
Miiicius, 10 
Minturnae, 11 
Misenum, 12 
Mitylene, 42 
Mceris, 54 
McEsia, 8 
Molossis, 24,2.5 
Mona Cicsaris, 4u 

Taciti, 40 
Mu?ida, 9 
Munychia, 33 
Muri Veteres, 8 
Murina, 42 
Musaeus, 28 
Muiina, 10 
Mvcale, 47 
Mycenae, 34 
Myconus^ 42 
Myoshormus, 54 
Myrtoum Mare, 25, 'it 
Mysia, 47 ^ 

N. 
Naissus, 8 
Napaia, 55 
Nar. 10 

Narbo Maittus, 6, 7 
NarbontMisis, 6, 7 
Narisci,5 " 
Naryx, 27 
Naulochus, 41 



323 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



NaupacfHs, 26 
Naiiplia, 34 
Naxos, 42 
Nazareth, 50 
Neaethes, 15 
Neapolis, 12, 40, 51 
Neitiaiisns, 6 
Neniea, 34 
Neriliis, 41 
Nervii," 
Neryx, 15 
Nestiis, i. q.Nessus,20, 

21 
Nicaea, 10,47 
Niconiedia, 47 
Nficopnlis, 8, 26, 48 
Niger, 57 
Nigritae, 57 
Niliis, 54 
Ninus, 52 
Niphates, 46 
Nisaea, 27, 44 
Nisibis,52 
Nisyrnsi, 98 
Nola, 12 

Nnnacris Mntis, 36 
NoricfE Alpes, 7 
Nnricnm, 7 
Noti Cornu, 4 
Novus, 48 
Nnbia, 55 
Niiiiiantia, 8 
Niiinidia, 57 
Nyiriphseum, 22 

O. 

Oasis, 55, 56 

Ocha, 42 

Ocliiis, 44 

Ortessus, 8 

a<:a,56 

Qilbalia, 188 

fKclialia, 36 

(Enotria, 9 

acta, 21, 24 

Oleiuis, 34 

Olisippo, 9 

Olympia, 34 

Olympus, 24, 40, 47 

01yntliiis,22 

Oinbi, 54 

Onciiis Mons, 26 

Onion, 51 

Opiintii, 27 

Opiuitins Sinus, 25, 27 

Opus, 27 

Orbelus Mons, 22 

Orcades, 40 

Orchonnentis, 27, 34 

Orestis,24 

Oreiis, 42 

Oricum, 24 

Orontcs, 44, 50 

Oropus, 28 

Ornspeda, 8 

Orouros, 50 

Ortygia, 40 

Ossa, 24 

Ostia, 11 

Othrys Mons, 24 

Oxus, 44, 46 

Oxyrynchus, 54 



Pacliyniim, or 
I'acliynus, 40 
Pactolus, 47 
Padns, 9. 10 
Paeduin, II 
i'aennia, 22 
Pifistanus SiiiuSj 13 
Pfi^siiini, 13 
Pasrasae, 24 
i*agas'»»iis Sinus, 24 



Paiaestina, 50 
Pallene, 22 
Palmyra, 50 
Pai.ipliyiia, 48 
Pancisus 36 
Pandosia, 13 
Pangaeus Mons, 21 
Pannonia, 7 
Panormus, 41 
Panticapaeuui, 5 
Paphlagonia, 47 
Paphos, 53 
Parisii, 6 
Parma, 10 
Parnassus, 26, 27 
Parnes, 26, 28 
Par()pamisus, 44 
Paros, 42 
Parrhasii, 34 
Parrhasius, 36 
Parlhenias (river), 47 
Parthenius, 36 
Parthenope, 12 
Parthia, 44 

Parueli Monies, 43, 44 
Pasargada, 44 
Passaro, 25 
Paiara, 48 
Patavium, 9 
Patmos, 42 
Patr2e,34 
Pausiiypus, 12 
Pelasgi, 24 
Pelasgia, 34 
Pelasgicus Sinus, 24 
Pelasgiotis, 24 
Peligrii, 10 
Pelion. 24 
Pella, 22 
Pellene, 34 
Peloponnesus, 21 
Peiorum, or Pelorus,40 
Peneus, 24, 34 
Perminae,7 
Pentapolis, 56 
Pentelicus, 26, 28 
Peraea, 52 
Perga, 48 
Pergamus, 46, 47 
Peritithus, 21 
Persepolis, 44 
Persia, 43 
Persicus Sinus, 44, 53 

Persis, 44 
Perusia, 10 

Pesaurum, 10 

Pessinus, 48, 94 
Petilia, 13 

Petra, 53 

Phaeacia, 41 

Phalacrum Prom. 41 

Phalerum, 33 

Pharae, 34 

Piiaros, 54 

Pharsalia, 24 

Pharsalus, 24 

Phasis, 46 

Pherae, 24 

Piiigaiia, 34 

Philaenorum Arae, 56 

Philippi, 22 

Philislaea, 52 

Phlegethon, 25 

Phlegra,22 

Phlegraei-campi, 12 

Phocaea, 6 

Phocis, 26, 27 

Phcenicia, 50 

Phrygia Major, 48 
Mitior, 4IB 

Phylace,'34 

Phyle, or Phule, 28 

Picenum, 10, 12 

Pictones, 6 



Pleria, 22 
Pimpia, 27 
Pincius, 16 
Pindus, 21, 24, 25, 26 
Pinduscfl.) 26 
Pindus (town), 26 
Pirajus, 33 
Pisa, 10,34 
Pisidia, 48 
Pistoria, 10 
Piacentia, 10 
Plataea, 27 
Platanistas, 38 
Piaianius, 27 
Plemmyrium, 40 
Plistus, 27 
Ploiae, 41 
PcEni, 9 

Polytimetus, 46 
Pompeii, 12 
Pons ^lii, 40 
Pontus, 8, 47 
PorphyraR,41 
Pnsidonia, 13 
Potidaea, 22 
Praerieste, U 
Prasum Prom. 4 
Priene, 47 
Prochyta, 40 
Proconnesus, 53 
Propontis, 21, 47 
Prusa, 47 
Psylii, 56 

Ptolemais, or Aco, 50 
Ptolemais, 56 
Puteolaiius Sinus, 12 
Puteoli, 12 
Pydna, 22 
Pylos, 36 
Pyxus, 13 

Q. 

Qnadi, 5 

Quirinalis Mons, 16 
Quirium, 16 

R. 

Ragae, 44 
Ragusa, 8 
Ravenna, 10 
Reate, 11 

Regillus Lacus, 11 
Rlia, 5 

Rhaeteum, 47 
Rhaetia, 7 
Rhamnus, 28 
Rhedones, 6 
Rhegium, 13 
Rlienus, 6,7 
Rhium, 25 
Rhium Prom. 33 
Rhodanus, 7 
Rhodope,21,22 
Rhodus, 42 
Rhyndacus, 47 
Rhype, 34 ; 
Riduna, 7 
Roma, 15, 119 
Rubeas, 3 
Rubicon, 10 
Rubricatus, 57 
Rudesp, 13 
Rutuli, 11 
Rutupiae, 38 

S. 
Sabaei, 53 
Sabatns, 12 
Sabini, 10 
Sabrata. 56 
Sacae, 46 
Sacer Mons, 11 
Sacrum Prom. 9, 48 
Sagunlum, 8 



Sais, 54 
Salamis, 42, 53 
Saiapia, 12 
Salernum, 12 
Salice, 3 
SalinydessuS; 20 
Salona, 8 
Salyes, 6 
Samaria, 51 
Same, 41 
Samnis, 12 
Samniles, 12 
Satnniuui, 12 
Sauios, 42 
Samosata, 50 
Samolhracia, 42 
Sangarius, 48 
Santones, 6 
Santonum Portus, 6 
Saphrae, 5 
Sardinia, 40 
Sard is, 47 
Sarmatia, 5, 46 
Sarnia, 7 
Sarnus, 12 
Saronicus Sinus, 22 

25, 28 
Saturnia, 9, 91 
Satyrorum InsulaR, 3 
PromonloriuKi, 3 
Sauromaiae, 5 
Savus, 8 
Saxones, 5 
Scamander, 46 
Scanda, 41 
Scandinavia, 5 
Scheria, 41 
Sciathos, 42 

Scopelos, 42 

Scordisci, 8 

Scotussa, 24 

Scylacium, 15 

Scylia, 13 

Scyllaeum, 13, 33 

Scyros, 42 

Scythia, 43 

Sebasle, 48, 51 

Sebethns, 12 

Segedunum, 40 

Segovia, 8 

Seguisiani, 6 

Seir, 52 

Seleucia, 48, 52 

Seieiicis, 50 

Selinns, 41, 48 

Seilasia,-36 

Selymbria, 21 

Senna Gallica, 10 

Senones, 10 

Senus, 3, 43 

Sepias, 24 

Sephoris, 50 

Sequana, 6, 7 

Sequani, 6 

Sera, 3, 43 

Serica, 43 

Seriphus, 42 

Serus, 43 

Sestos, 21 

Sicambrl, 5 

Sicilia,40 

Sicyon, 34 

Sicyonia, 34 

Sidon, 50 

Sigaeum, 47 

Silarus, 11, 13 

Siloam, .')2 

Silures, 38 

Simaetiius, 41 

Simois, 46 

Sinae,.3, 43 

Sinai, 53 

Singfticus Sinus, 3Sl 
I Singidunum, 8 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



323 



Sinope, 47 
Siniiessa, 11 
Sioii,or Zion, 51 
Siphnus, 42 
Siponturn, 12 
Sipylus, Ml. 47 
Sir.bonis Palus, 53 
Siiiiiiuni, 7 
Sizopolis, 20 
Sinyrna, 47 
Sncanda, 44 
Sogdiana, 46 
Soli, 48,53 
Solyini, 48 
Soracte Mons, 10 
Spalatro, 8 
Sparta, 36 
Sparti, ?.t) 
Spaiila Lacus, 44 
Sphacteria, 41 
Sphagise, 41 
Spoleiium, 10 
Sporades, 42 
Staniae, 12 
Stagira, 22 
StoBchades, 7 
Stratus, 26 
Stratonicea, 48 
StrongylH, 41 
Strophades, 41 
Strytnon, 20, 21 
Stryinonicus Sinus, 

21 , 2-2 
Stymphsei, 21, 22 
Styiiiphaius, 34 
Slymphe, 25 
Styx, 25, 36 
Suessa Pometia, II 
Suevi, 5 
Sulino, 10 
Sunium, 25, 28 
Surrentinum Prom. 
Surrentuiii, 12, 126 
Susa, 44 
Susianna, 44 
Sybaris, 13, 15 
Sybaris (fl.), 13 
Syene, 54 
Syracusae, 40 
Syrennusce, 126 
Syria, 48 
Syriae Pylae, 48 
SyrlicH Regio, 56 
Syriis, 55, 56 



12 



1 »bo% 51 



T. 



Tabraca, 57 
Taenarum, 33,36 
Tagus, 9 
Tanagra, 27 
Tanagrus orTenagrus, 

13 
Tanais, 5, 6 
Tanais E:iiporium, 6 
Taniassus, 53 
Ta()hiassus, 26 
Taprobane, 3, 53 
Tarbelli, 6 

Tareiilinus Sinus, l5 
Tarentum, 13 
Tarraco, 8 
Tarraconensis. 8 
Tarsus, 48 
Tartessus, 9 
Tauri, 5 
Taurini, 9 

Taurus Mons, 46, 48 
Tavium, 48 
Taygetus, 36 
Teanum, 11, 12 
Tegea. 34 
Telmessus, 48 
Tempe, 24 
Tfinedos, 42 
Tenos, 42 
Tentvra, 54 
Teos" 47 
Tergeste, 10 
Termessus, 48 
Terina. 13 
Terinaeus Sinus, 13 
Tetrapolis, 26, 41 
Teutones, 5 
Thapsacus, 50 
Thapsus, 57 
Thasus, 21, 42 
Theb3e,24, 27, 54 
Thebiiis, 54 
Tlieharnia, 44 
Theiniscyra, 47 
Theodosia, 5 
Thera, 42 
Therapne, 36 
Thermae, 22 
Thercnaicus Sinus, 22 
Tlierinodon, 47 
Thermofylae, 21,25, 27 
Theriiius, 26 
Thospiae, 27 
Thesprotia, 24, 25 
Thessalia, 21, 22 
Thessalonica,22 
Thracia, 20 



Thraciae Chersonesus, 

20 
Thracius Bosphorus, 

47 
Thrasyrnene Lacus, 10 
Throniuni, 27 
Thule, 3, 40 
Thuriuin, 13 
Tnyamis, 25 
Thyatira, 47 
Thynibra, 47 
Thynae. 3, 43 
Thyni, 20 
Thynia, 20 
Tiberias, 50, 52 
Tiheris, 10,11,119 
Tibur, 11 
Ticinum, 9 
Ticinus, 9, 10 
Tigranocerta, 46 
Tigris, 44, 46 
Timolus, 47 
Tingis, 57 
Tingiiana, 57 
Tirynihus, 34 
Togata Gallia, 9 
Toletum, 8 
Toiriarus, 25 
T'^nii, 8 

Toronaicus Sinus, 22 
Tfirrens Egypli, 53 
Trachis, 24 
Trajanopolis, 21 
Traiisaipina Gallia, 6 
Transpadana, 9 
Trapezus, 47 
Treveri, 7 
Trichoiiis Lacus, 20 
Tricola, 41 
Tridentuni, 7, 9 
Trinacria, 40 
Triiiobantes, 38 
Tripolitana, 56 
Triqueira, 40 
Tritsea, 34 
Tritonis Lacus, 56 
Trixicurn, 12 
Troas, 46 
Trncnii, 48 
TroBzene, 34 
Troglodytffi, 55 
Troja or Ilium, 46 
Tuiieta or Tunes, 57 
Turris Stratonices, 151 
Tusculiini, 11 
Tyana, 48 
Tycha, 40 



Tyr^., 6 
Tyrrheni, 10 
Tyrrtienutn Mare, 13 
Tyrus, 50 
Tysdrus, 56 

U. 

Ubii,7 
Uliarius, 7 
Umbria, 10 
Uria, 12 
Urius Sinus, 12 
Utica, 57 
Uxantis Insula, 7 
Uxellodunum, 6 

V. 

Vaga, 57 
Valeriiia, 13, 40 
Vascones,8 
Vectis, 40 
Veil, 10 
Veientes, 11 
Velia, 13 
Venafru'n, 11 
Veneris Portus, 54 
VeLeti, 9 
Venusia, 13 
Verbanus Lacus, 10 
Vergellus, 13 
Verona, 9 
Vesuvius, 12 
Viadrus, 6 
Vibo, 13 
Vindelicia, 7 
Vlndobona, 7 
Vistula, 6 
Vogesus, 7 
Volcae, 6 
Volsci, 11 
Volsinii, 10 
Viilcatia, 42 
Vultur, 13 
Vuiturnus, 12 



Xanthus, 25, 46, 4» 



Zacynthus, 41 
Zagros,',44 
Zama, 57 
Zariaspa, 46 
Zephyrium, 15 
Zion, 51 
Zoar, 52 



GENERAL INDEX. 



ibraham, 69 

Abraxas. 124 

Alisalom's Pillar, 223 

Altsyntliiiins, 21 

A.bsyrliis, 135 

,\cademy of Inscriptions, 17 

A-chMia,constitutiini atid league 
of, 75, 193 

Acliniis or snits at law, 186 

.Actium, battle of, 71, 77 

Actors, theatrical, 176 

Aiimelus, 101 

Adonai, 106 

Adonis, story of, 106; festival 
of, 169 

Vdoinioii anions Romans, 289 

.vdoration, origin of the word, 
237 

Adraslia, 117 

Adultery, punished by Creeks, 
220 ; by Romans, 260 

.Eicns, 100 

/Ecasior, 136 

.E'lepol, 136 

/Elides, Roman, 249 

iE-tPS, 135 

/EL'is of Minerva, 104 

Al'sos Pdtomos, battle of, 74 

^liiriis. 121 

.E.)lns, 116 

iEsculapius, oracles of, 166, 117 

/Eu)\\a, confederacy of, 193 

Agamemnon, 137 

Age, respect paid to, 159 

Aglaia, 107 

Agriculture, among the Greeks, 
158, 212; among the. Ro- 
mans, 264 

Aj;ix, 137 

Alabasler, 221 

Alaric, master of Rome, 79,225 

Albati mount, 283 

Alcesie, 134 

Alcmseoii, 136 

Alf^xander, his coffin, 221 

Aloides, 100 

\ltars, Grecian, 148, 160; Ro- 
man, 2.^0; Roman, in Eng- 
land, 230 

Amazons, 131 

America, whether known to 
the ancients, 57 

Anunon, 9.i, 165 

Amor, or Cupid, 106 

An.()liiaritus, temple of, 28 

Amphic.tyon, 133 

Ampliiciyonic Council, 183 

Amphion, 102, 136 

Amphitheatres, Roman, 246 

Amusements, of Greeks, 159, 
207, 214; of Romans, 242, 
217, 295 

Andromeda, 133 

Angels, ministry of, a source 
of ancient fable, 84; fallen, 
129 

Annual Register, or Calendar 
at Rome, 241 

Anointing, 158,209,210 

Aiitajus 134 

\nleros, 106 

Kntiinachns, Greek poet, 136 

:V24 



Antiochus the Great, 70 

Anlipaier, 177 

Antiquaries, Society of, 17 

Antiquities, classical, utility of, 
143, 227 

Antony and Cleopatra, 77 

Anuhis, Egyptian god, 124 

Apis, 123; sup;iosed a symbol 
of Joseph, 124 

Apollo, 100; Uelvidere, 101; 
temples of, 18, 101 ; oracle 
of, 165 

Apollonius, Rhodius, 1.50 

Apotheosis, of heroes, 133; Ro- 
man emperors, 122, 137,304 

Apparel, common, 157; milita- 
ry, 154 

Aqueducts, Roman, 10; at Spo- 
letium, 10 

Arachne, 104 

Ararat, Mt., ascended by Par- 
rot, 46 

Arbela, battle of, 70 

Arbitrators, at Athens, 186; at 
Rome, 259 

Arches, triumphal, 10, 19 

Archimedes, tomb of, 2-3 

Architeiiture of Greek houses, 
158.210 

Archons, 151, 176, 177, 180 

Arcturus, risiuL' of mentioned 
by Hesiod, 65 

Areopagus, 32, 177, 184 

Argonauts, 135; sphere made 
for them, by Chiron, 64; 
pictures of, &c., 98 

Argos, oracular shrine at, dis- 
covered by Clarke, 164; 
constitution of, 193 

Argus, 10« 

Ariadne, 109, 135 

Armies, Grecian, 153; Roman, 
271; attendants of Roman, 
277 

Armor, ancient, 153, 194, 274 

Arsaces, 71 

Arsacidse, 71 

Artisans, Roman, 263 

Arts, magical, 240 ; the mecha- 
nic at Rome, 263. 264 

Ashes of the dead, 221 

Ashtaroth or Astarte, 106 

Assemblies, of the Romans or 
Comitia, 257; Greeks, 183, 
190 

Assyrian empire, 69 

Astriea, 117 

Astrologers, 240 

Asylum, privileges of, 162 

Atel, 5 

Alliens, origin of name, 104; 
citizens of, 178; govern- 
ment of, 151, 177 ; political 
history, 72, 142, 151, 177; 
topography of, 28, 178; 
magistrates of, 180; re- 
venues and expenditures, 
181, 162; senate and as- 
'semblies, 183, 184 

Athletics, Greek system of, 175 

Allanlides, 114, 134 

Atlas, 133, 131 

Atmosphere personified, 94 



Atridae, 136 

Attila, leader of the Huns, 79 

Atys, 93 

Auction, 268 

Augurs, Roman, 233 

Aiigustiilus, 79 

Augustus, master of Egypt, 71 

Aurora, 114 

Auspices, 233 

Auxiliary troops of Romans, 

277 
Avatars or incarnations of 

Vishnu, 95 

B. 

Babel, builders of, 125 

Babylon, founding of, 69 ; waf/g 
of. 52, 69, 114; conunerce 
of, 212 

Bacchus, 109; festivals of, 169; 
cave of, 33 

Bachelors, tax on, 262, 286 

Balbec, ruins of, 50 

Ball, ornament worn by Roman 
youth, 299; playing with, 
216 

Banishment, 187, 191,260 

Bankers at Rome, 17, 263 

Banquets, evening, 295; of 
Greeks, 157 

Bathing, among Greeks, 158, 
208; among Romans, 293 

Baths, construction of, 209 

Batlerinj.'-rarn, 281 

Battle. Greek order of, 154, 
197; manner of commenc- 
ing, 197, 198.; Roman order 
of, 275, 278; at sea, 282- 
Hesiod's of the Titans,Ho- 
iner's of the Gods, 125 

Beaks of ships, 202 

Beatification of saints, origin 
of, 137 

Bellerophon, 131, 133 

Bellona, 105, 120 ; temple of, 49 

Belzoni, his entrance of a pyra- 
mid, 123 

Benevenlum, battle of, 76 

Besieging, art of, among the 
Greeks, 198; Romans, 280 

Betrothing before nuptials, 220 

Birds, divination by, 167 

Births, goddess over, 96 

Bissextile year, 62 

Boeoiia, constitution of, &c. 192 

Boeotian intellect, 28 

Boundaries of land, Roman, 
119 

Boxing, 173, 243 

Brachma, Hindoo deity, 93, 95 

Brass, material for ancient 
arms and tocds, 154 

Bread, inventor and god of 
kneading, 120; baking of, 
263 

Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 
300 

Brennus, sack of Rome by, 76 

Briareus, 125 

Bricks, Roman, 263 

Bride, Greek, 220; Roman, 287 

Bridges over the Tiber, 16; of 
Xerxes and Darius, 200 



Gr.XERAL TXDEX. 



325 



Brizo, goddess over the inter 
pretation of dreams, 167 

Brokers, Roman, 263 

Broth, Spartan black, 191 

Bruins and Cassins, 77 

Bubastis, 124 

Bnrial-pla(,es, 149, 222, 3:'2, 3( 3 

Biirial-riles, imporlum e <if 
among the' ancients, 223 

BiirniMK of corpst's, 149, 221, 
300, 302; of widows, 149 

C. 

Cahiri, mysteries of, 136 

Cabirian temple, 22 

Cacus, 107, 134 

Cadmns, 133 

Cadiiceiis of Mercury, 108 

Caecnius, 107 

Calendar, Roman, 61,241 ; Gre- 
jiorian, 62 

Calends, 61,240 

Calliope, 127 

Cambvses, conqueror of Egypt, 
71" 

Camillus, captor of Veii, 76 

Camp, Grecian, 154, 197; Ro- 
man, 278; discipline of, 280 

Campagiia di Roma, 20 

Canal of Claudius, 10, 11 

(3ann3e, battle of, 77 

Canopus, 121 

Capaneus, 136 

Capital trials, Roman, 259 

Capitol, Rosnan, 17 

Capitolinus, the hill, 16 

'Japiives, treatment of, 154, 
155, Hig 

Carriagres, Roman, 266 

Carthaginians, History, 71, 72 

Caspian gate or pass, 46 

Cassandpr, 177 

Castagnas, 21 

Castalia, 127 

Castanets, 218 

Castor and Pullnx, 135 

Catacombs, 55, 221 

Catiline, conspiracy of. 77 

Cavalry, Greek, 24, 191, 197; 
Roman, 270, 276 

Cecrops, 133 

Celestials, or celestial gods, 87 

Cemelerv, orisin of term, 223 

Cenotaphs, 222, 302 

Census, Roman, 239 

Censors, Roman, 250 

Centaurs, 24, 131 

Centimani, 113 

Centumvirate, 259 

Centnrial or Seculargames,243 

Centuries, division of Romans 
into, 252; voting by, 257 

Cephalus, 115 

Cerberus, 37, 100, 132, 221 

Ceremonies of ancient wor- 
ship, 147, 148; nuptial, 159, 
220, 287 

Ceres, 110; temple and statue 
of, found by Dr. Clarke, 
112; festivals of, 169 

("ester or Chester, towns 
whose names end in, 2bO 

Cestiiis, pyramid of, 223 

Ostns, girdle of Venus, 106 

Chaeroiiea, battle of, 74 

(•h.iirs, 212; of state, 254 

Chance, personified, 119 

Chants, funeral, 221 

Chariots, race in, 172; Grecian. 
153; Roman, 266 

Charming or fascinating, the 
power of, 240 

Charon, 100, 221 

Charts, chronological, 66 



Charybdis, 132 

Chase, 158; goddess of, 101 

Cherry-trees, whence b ought, 
47 

Children, treatment of among 
Greeks, 159; at Sparta, 
189; legitimate, <fec., 220; 
among Komans, 286, 287 

Chil Minar, or palace of forty 
columns, 44 

Chimsera, 131 

Chimneys, 210,291 

Chloris, 120 

Choragic tripods, 33 

Chorus, of Greek tragedy, 176; 
part of the Spartan Forum, 
36 

Christ, year of his birth, 64, 65 

Christianity, influence of on 
literature and society, 287 

Christians, how |)ui to death 
by Romans, 261 ; their 
tombs, 303 

Chronology, classical, &-<. 59; 
syslems of, 66; brie ut- 
liiie of, 67 

Churches called Basilicae, 18 

Cicero, his table, -.67 

Circensian games, 2-12 

Cities, principal Greek, 141 

Citizenship, Roman, 258 

Civil affairs of Greeks, 150, 176; 
of Romans, 248 

Classes of citizens at Athens, 
177; Sparta, 188; Roiiie, 
253, 286 

Classic authors, origin of the 
phrase, 253 

Client and patron, 254 

Climates, ancient division of 
earth into, 4 

Clio, 127 

Clistheiies, 177 

Clocks, 60, 210 

Coan vestments, 298 

Ccelus, 113 

Coffins, 302, 303 

Cohorts, 272, 277, 281 

Coins, Greek, 213; Roman, 266; 
their use in chrotiology, 65 

Coliseum, 19 

Collatinus, 227 

Colleges or orders of Roman 
priests, 232; of artisans, 
263 

Colonies, from Greece, 72, 73, 
142; of Rome, 258 

Colossal statues, 42 

Column of Duillius, 284; of the 
twisted serpens, 165 

Combats, single, in ancient 
war, 156 

Commerce, of Greeks, 152, 212; 
of Romans, 263 ; of Baby- 
lon, 212 

Comus, 119 

Concord, 18 

Conc\ibinage anDong Greeks, 
220 

Consecration, of Roman empe- 
rors, 137, 304; of le res, 

&c., 238 

Constantine the Great, his 
leign, 78; his imp. stand- 
ard, 272; his military sys- 
tem, 284 

Constantinople, situation and 
topography, 20; tripod in 
its hipii'iiiioiiic, 165 

Consular army, 271, 277 

Consuls, Roman, 248 

Conveyance, modes o*', 266 

Copper, used before iron, 154 

Corinth, constitution of, 192; 



isthmus of, 34 ; capture of, 
74, 75, 77 

Corn, distribution of at Rome, 
261 

Coroiiis, 117 

Corpses, burning of, 221, 300 

Ciismelics, 210,299 

Cosmoiiony of the Greeks, 146 

Costume, Grecian, 157, 208; 
Roman, 297 

Cottage of Rornulus, 17 

Cotton, use of, 209 

Couches, for reclining at table, 
2(16,291,293,297; for sleep- 
ing, 290 

Country-seats of Romans, 291 

Courts, at Athens, 150, 185; at 
Sparta, 191 ; at Rome, 259 

Covenants, manner of confirm- 
ing, 161 

Covenants or leagues, 164 

Cow, symbol of Isis, 122 

Crassus, wealth of, 267 

Crete, earJv constitution, &c., 
151, 192; Labyrinth of, 43 

Creusa, 135 

Crimes at Rome, 259 

Crishna, Hindoo deity, 95, 101 

Croesus, king of Lydia, 70 

Crowns, 150, 175, 275 

Crusaders, at Constantinople, 
79 

Cunaxa, battle of, 70, 74 

Cupid, 106 

Curtain, of the ancient theatre, 
246; embroidered, 148, 218 

Curtian Lake, 17 

Curule, officers, 2.'^4; chairs, 254 

Cushites, 125 

Cybele or Rhea, 93 ; priests of, 
2^6 

Cycles of the ancient^, 62 

Cyclopean architecture, 41, 10.7 

Cyclops, 107, 124 

Cymbals, 217 

Cynocephalus, 124 

Cyrene, remains of, 5o 

Cyrus, king of Persia, 70 

Cyrus the younger, 70; expe- 
dition of, 70, 74 ; palate of, 
114; tomb of, 223 

1). 

Dacian mines, 8, 262, tablets, 
272 

Dwdalus, labyrinth built "jy, 43 

Daemons, 129 

Danaides, 100 

Danaus, 133 

Dancing, at feasts, 159, 207, 216 

Daphne, 101 

Darius, 70 

Dates of ancient events, how 
ascertained, 63 ; helps in 
remembering, 67 

David, reign of, 69 

Days, reckoning and division 
of, &c., 59, 240 ; origin of 
the names of, 62; Roman 
manner of spending day, 
.292 

Death, as a god, 130; punish- 
ment of, how inflicted by 
Greeks, 187, 191 ; by Ro- 
mans, 260 

Decemvirs, 76, 251 

Dedication of Roman temples 
238 

Deification of heroes, 137; of 
emperors, 137,304 

Deities, classes of anci'^nt, 87, 
138; peculiar to Romang 
119 

Dejanira, 134 



326 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Delphi, Apnllo's temple at, 101 ; 
oracle of, 165 

Deluge, of Deucalion, 24 ; tia- 
ilitions nf universal, 84, 106 

Demetrius Poliorceles, 177 

Demi gods, 87, 132, 149 

Deucalion, 21, 133 

Dial, 60, 210 

Diana, 101 ; temple of, at Ephe- 
sus, 114 ; Bubastis, 124 

Dice, playing with, 295 

Dictator, Ronmn, 75, 251 

Dictionaries, mythological, 89 

Dido, 72 

Dighton rock, figure, &c., found 
near it, 153 

Diocletian, his persecution and 
massacer of Christians, 78 

Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a 
slave, 180; the Cynic, his 
tomb, 223 

Diomedes, 137 ; villa of, 296 

Dionysia, 169 

Dionysius the tyrant, prison 
of, 40 

Dioscuri, 135 

Dirges, at funerals, 221 

Disa, goddess of Germans, 122 

Discipline, military, 199; of 
Roman camps, 280 

Diseases deified, 120 

Dishes at a Roman supper, 294 

Divination, art of among the 
Greeks, 149, 164, 166; Ro- 
mans, 240 

Divinity, Greek and Roman 
idea of, 87 

Divisions of time, 59 

Divorces, Roman, 287 

Dodona, oracle of, 25, 165 

Dogs of Molr.ssis, 25 

Domestic«a (fairs of Greeks, 157, 
204: of Romans, 285 

f>ominical letter, 63 

Dowry in marriage, 220 

Draco, his laws, earliest writ- 
ten in Greece, 177 

Dramatic exhibitions, among 
Greeks, 175; Romans, 246 

Dreams, on interpretation of, 
167, 240; god of, 130 

Dress of Greeks, 157, 208; Ro- 
mans, 297 

Drinking cups, 204,207,297 

Driii.licHl temple, 148 

Druids. 237 

Drum, 217 

Dryads, 126 

Dryope, 116 

Dwellings, Roman, 290; Gre- 
cian, 210 

Dyeing, art of, 264 

E. 

Ear-rings, Roman, 299 

Earth personified, 93, 112 

Earthenvv..re, 263 

E:ili"2, Roman customs in, 293 

Eclipses in ancient times, 6i, 
197 

Edict, of Prsetor, 249 

E.liication among the Greeks, 
159; Romans 288 

Egeria and Numa, 229 

Egypt, productiveness of, 261 ; 
deities of, 122; Geogriphy 
of, 53; Chronology of, 66, 
71-; works on, 71 

Eayptian gods, 122; customs 
of burial, 100 

El Wah, site oftemple of Jupi- 
ter, 56 

Slections at Rome,25'' 

k ephants used in war, 194 



Eleusinian mysteries, 112, 169 

Eleven, the Athenian magis- 
trates, 181 

Elysium, 99 

Emancipation of sons, 287, 288; 
of slaves, 289 

Embalming the dead, 221 

Emperors deified, 122, 137,304; 
Roman, iheir reign, 78 

Empire, Roman power of, 249; 
military system of, 270; 
changes in, 284 ; extent of, 
226 ; division of, 285 ; East- 
ern, 79 

Employments, under guardian 
deities, 120 ; of Greeks, 
158; of Romans, 262 

Empresses, on Roman coins, 96 

Engines, iiiiliiary, 198, 280 

Entrails of victims, as prognos- 
tics, 234 

Epaminondas, 74 

Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 114 

Ephori, 151, 190, 191 

Epidaurus, medical springs at, 
117 

Epirotes, 25 

Equites or knightsof Rome, 254 

Eras and Epochs, 65 

Erato, 127 

Erebus, 100 

Erigoiie, 117 

Ery.sicthon, 112 

Essarhaddon, 69 

Eteocles and Polynices, 136 

Etruscans, their relieious usa- 
ges, 229 

Eulogies over the dead, 222, 302 

Euryale, 1.30 

Euterpe, 12r 

Evil eye, superstition respect- 
ing, 240 

Evolutions, military, 197 

Exercises of Roman camp, 280 

Exhalations of Pontine marsh- 
es, 11 

Expenses, public, at Athens, 
182, 224; at Rome, 236, 262 

Expiation among the Romans, 
239 

Exposing of children, by Ro- 
mans, 287 



Fabii, race of, 11 

Fables, mythological, sources 
of, 84 

Falconer, shipwreck described 
by, 28 

Fallen spirits, 129 

Fame, goddess of, 118 

Families, Rnman, 286 

Family habitations, from Ves- 
ta, 113 

Fanatic, origin of the term, 
240 

Fascination, 240 

Fasting among ancients, 171 

Fate, controlling the gods, 88 

Fates, 127 

Father, of mankind, according 
to Greeks, 124; power of 
the Roman, over his chil- 
dren, 287 

Fauns, 130 

Faunus, grove and oracle of, 11 

Feast of the gods, 234 

Feasts, social, of Greeks, 158, 
206; of Romans, 294 

Feet, covering for, 208, 298 

Females, state of in Greece, 
159, 218; obligations of, to 
Christianity, 287 

Feronia, 120 



Festivals, Greek, 168: Roniaa 

241 
Field of Truth, 99 
Fire, the vestal, 113 
Fishing among Greeks, 158 
Fish-pond of Horlensius. 292 
Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135 
Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203; Ro- 
man, 282 
Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 293 
Flight of birds, ominous, 149, 

233 
Flood, in time of Deucalion, 24 
Flora, 120 

Flowers, goddess of, 120 
Food, of Greeks, 157, 204; Ro 

mans, 293, 294 
Foot, means of determining tho 

Roman, 268 
Fortune, goddess of, 118 
Forums, at Rome, 17; Athens, 

32 
Fountain of the sun, 56 
Fowling, among Greeks, 158 
Foxes, burning of, in worship 

of Ceres, 112 
Franciade, 66 
Free men and freedmen, at 

Rome, 285 - 
French Republic, era of, 65 
Fret-work, 290 
Fulling of cloth, 264 
Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 

149, 221, 222 ; Roman, .300 ; 

songs, 221 ; eulogies, 222, 

302; pile, 149,302 
Funeral orations of Pericles 

and Demosthenes, 222 
Furies, 99, 128 

Furnaces in Roman houses, 291 
Furniture of houses, 212,290 

G. 

Gabriel, stone ot', 53 

Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 42 

Galleys, or war-ships, 200, 282 

Gamblers of Pompeii, 294 

Games of the Greeks, 172, 173 j 
Olympic, &c., 173 ; social, 
207; Romans, 242; in ho- 
nor of the dead, 222, 304 

Ganymedes, 96 

Gardening, god and goddess of, 
119; of the Romans, 292 

Garlands, 175, 275 

Gates of Rome, 16 

Gauls, Rome burnt by, 225 ; 
history of, 7 

Gelon, of Syracuse, 72 

Getnini, 135 

Gems, illustrative of Mytholo- 
gy, 86 

Genius and Genii, 128 

Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79 

Geography, knowledge of the 
Greeks in, 3; epitome of 
classical, 3 

Geryon, 131 

Giants, 124, 125, 133 

Gladiators, Roman, 244, 304 

Glass, how far used bv Ro- 
mans, 263, 290 

Gnomon, 60 

Gods, Greek and Roman, num. 
ber of, 85 ; classes of, 87 
their residence, &c., 87. 
food, &c. 88; genealogy, 90, 
Egyptian admitted among 
the Romans, 122 

Golden aee, 91, 93; number, 63 

Gorgons, 130 

Goths, Rome taken by, 79, 22'» 

Government, changes in form 
ofGrecian,72, 141, 151,176 



GENERAL INDEX. 



327 



178, 191; of Roman, 75, 
248; hy Romans over con- 
quered nations, 258 

Gracchi, the two, 77 

Graces, 127 

Graici, and other names of an- 
cient Greeks, 141 

Grain, Kinds of, -^64; distribu- 
tion of at Rome, 261 

Grapes, varieties of, 295 

Grecian cities, 141 

Greece, first inhabitants, bar- 
barous. 141, 150; colonies 
in, 142; causes of culture 
and improvement, 141, 143; 
periods in the progress of 
refineinent, 145 ; extent of, 
2C, 21, 141; outline of the 
chronology of, 72; form of 
government in, 141, 142, 
151, 177 

Greek antiquities, utility of, 
143: writers on, 144 

Greek emperors, 79 

Grt!eks in southern Italy, 13 

Gresorian calendar, 62 

Griffon, 132 

Grinding, method of, 158, 159, 
264 

Groves, sacred, 18, 162,230 

Guest-ch;iinbers. 293 

Gyges, ring of, 99 

Gymnastic art, 175 

H. 

Habits, domestic, of Romans, 
292 

Hades, 99, 221 ; gates of, 99, 223 

Hair, modes of dressing, 208, 
. 299 - 

Hallirrhotius, 105 • 

Hamadryad?, 126 

Harmodius and Aristogiton, 177 

Harmonia. 107 

Harpies. 41, 128 

Harpocrates, 124 

Harps, 217 

Harrowing, sod of, 120 

Head, coverings for, 208, 298 

Health, drinking of, 207, 295; 
goddess of, 117, 118 

Heathpnism, moral influence 
of among Greeks and Ro- 
mans, 86 

Hebe. 96 

Hecate. 10! 

Hecatomb, 147 

Hecatoinpylos, 71 

Hector, 137 

Heirs, at Athens, 220 

Helen, 137 

Helicon, 126 

Heliogabalus, 298 

Heliotrope, 60 

Helius, 114 

Hell, rivers of. 99 

Helmet, 153, 274; of Pluto, 99 

Helots. 189 

Hepbgestion, friend of Alexan- 
der, 222 

Heralds, 150, 197, 234 

Hercules, 134; story of ex- 
plained. 134 

Hermae, hu«ts or statues so 
called, 109. 119 

Hermanuhis, 124 

Hermes, 108; Trismegistus, 108 

Heroes, worship of. &c. 132. 149 

Heroic age, 72, 132; manners 
of, 159 

Heruli, Rome taken by, 78 

Hesperides, 134 

Hierarchy of Romish church, 
233 

25 



Hieromancy, 167 

Hills of Rome, 16 

Hippias and Hipparchus, 177 

Hippocrene, 127, 131 

Hippodamia, 131, 136 

Hippomedon, 136 

History of principal ancient 
states, 69; illustrated by 
coins, 65 : sacred, as related 
to pagan mythology, 84 

Horsemanship. 156.. 194, "276 

Horsemen or knights, 270, 276 

Horse, Neptune patron of, 98 

Horse-race, 172 

Horses, for chariots and for 
carrying burdens, 266 

Hortensius, his villas, 292 

Horns, 100, 122, 124 

Hosnitalitv. Grecian, 158, 179, 
207; Romnii, 295 

Hours, goddesses of, 127 ; of the 
day, 60. 240 

Household gnds, 129 

Household, Roman, 288. 289 

Houses. Grecian, 158, 210; Ro- 
man, 290 

Hunting, fishing, &c., 158 

Hurdles^ 280 

Hyacinthus. 101 

Hydra, 131 

Hydraulic organ, 217,247 

Hygeia. 1 17 

Hvmenaeus, 107 

Hyperion, 114, 124 



lacchus, 170 

Ibis, J22 

Iciimuli, mines of, 262 

Idas, 135 

Ides, 61, 240 

Idolatry, origin of, 83, 84 

Idomeneus, 137 

Ignis, 113 

Ilithyia, 96, 102 

Ilium or Troy, 46 

Illyrians, 8 

Images in temples, 146, 160, 230 

Imperial government, Roman, 

249 
Implements of agriculture, Ro- 
man, 264 
Imi'risonment at Rome, 260 
Inachus, 133 

Indian mythology, its resem- 
blance to Greek, SO 
Indiction, cvcle of, 63 
Industry, art of 212, 263 
Inferior gods, 113 
Infernal regions, entrance to, 

12. 36 ; rivers, 25 
Inheritances at Athens, 220 
Inns, 158, 208 

Inscriptions, on altars, 230 ; on 
tombs, &c., 222; use of, in 
chronology, 65 
Institute, Royal, of France, 17 
Instruments, agricultural, 264 ; 
sacrificial, 232; musical, 
216, 217, 272 • 
Intelligence and wisdom per- 
sonified, 104 
Intelligence, means of convey- 
ing arrmng Greeks, 199; 
Romans, 15 
Interest, rate of at Rome, 267 
Intermarriages at Rome, 254 
Inuus, 116 
lo, 105, 122 

Ipsus, battle of, 70, 74 
Iris, goddess of the rainbow, 

96, 115 
Isa, Hindoo deity, 122 
Isiac Table, 123 



Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102,122 
table of, 123; temple of, 
discovered at Pompeii, 123 

Isocrates, tomb of, 223 

Isthmian games, 98, 175 

Iialo-Grecian states, 15 

Italy, geography of, 9 

Ixion, 96, 100 

J. 

Janus, a Roman god, 10, 93 

Japhet, similar to Japetus, 124 

.lason and Medea, 135 

Javelin, hurling of, 172 

Jeroboam, 69 

Jerusalem, topography of, 51, 
52; destruction of. 70 

Jewish history and chronolo- 
gy, outline of, 69, 70 

Jobat'es, 131 

Joseph, son of Jacob, 124 

Joshua, 69 

Journals and Periodicals illus- 
trating classical literature, 
17 

Judges in Hades, 100 

Judicial proceedings, Greek, 
165; Roman, 250' 

Juggernaut, festival of, &c. IIC 

Jugglers and rope-dancers, 244 

Julian, the Apostate, 78; pe- 
riod, 63 

Junia, sister of Brutus, 302 

Juno, 96 

Jupiter, 94; Ammon, 95, 165; 
temples of, 17 ; statue of in 
Olympia, 114; Pluvius or 
Pluvialis, 95 

Justice, courts of, 150, 184,259; 
goddess of, 117 

K. 

Kaaba at Mecca, 53 

Kalends, see Calends. 

Keys, ancient, 212 

King, Archon, 1^1 ; Roman 
priest so called, 234 

Kings, power of the early Gre- 
cian, 150, 189; the'Spat- 
tan, 189; the Roman, 220 
234, 24S; ensigns of, 24S; 
kissing the feet, 210 

Knights, Roman, 254 

L. 

Labvrinth, Egvptian, 54, 55; 

Cretan, 13," 135 
Lacedseinon, see Sparta. 
Lachrymatories, 303 
Lamps, ancient, 291 
Language, early Latin, similar 

to Latin now used in Wal- 

lachia. 8 
Lantern of Demosthenes, 33 
LapithsB, 24, 131 
Lares and Penates, 129 
Latidave, 298 
Laiona. 116 

Lawgivers, of Athens, 188 
Laws of Greece, early, 151 , of 

Athens, 188; Sparta and 
•Crete, 191 ; Rome. 261 
Lawsuits. Athenian, 186; Spar- 
tan, 191 ; Roman, 259 
Lawyers, Roman, 262 
Leaping, game of Greeks, 172; 

of Romans, 243 
Legion, the Roman, 270, 271, 

272; Thundering, 238; 

number of legions, 284 
Legitimation, Roman, 289 
Leonidas, his tombi 38 
Letters, used to represent num« 

bers, 213, 267 



338 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Levying, Roman system of, 271 

Libations, 147, 163, 238 

Licentiousness of the Greeks, 
220 

Lictors, 248, 250 

Life, private, of Greeks, 204; 
Romans, 285 

Ligiit troops, 194, 276 

Lorelto, chapel of, 10 

Lots, used for learning the fu- 
ture, 167, 240; in choosing 
magistrates, 180 

Lucifer, 114 

Lucina, 102 

Lucretia, outrage upon, 75,227 

Luculliis, his villa, 12 

Luna, 114 

Lunar cycle, 62 

Lnpercus, 116 

Lustrations, 147, 239 

Luxury of Romans, 227, 267 

Lycia, Greek tombs in, 223 

Lycurgus, Spartan lawgiver, 
73, 151 

Lydian history, 70 

r^-ynceus, 135 

Lyncus, 112 

Lyre, 216,217; invention of, 108 

Lysander, 177 

M. 

Maccabees, 69 

Machaon, 117 

Machines, used in war, 281 

Magical arts, 167, 240 

Magistrates at Athens, 180; 
Sparta, 190; Rome 251 

Magnesia, battle of, 70 

Maia, 108 

Makrinoros, pass of, 26 

Mamertine prison, 260 

Manes, 129 

Maniples in Roman army, 272 

Manners, general, of Romans, 
292 

Mantlets, 280 

Manumission ofslaves, 289 

Marching, Roman order of, 278 

Marines, 202, 282 

Marius, 17 * 

Market days at Rome, 241 

Markets, 17, 32 

Marriages, Greek, 159, 218 
Roman, 286 

Mars, 105; priests of, 235 

Marsyas and Apollo, 101 

Martial rewards and punish- 
ments, 199, 275 

Masks, ancient, 176, 217 

Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- 
solus. 114,223 

Meals, Spartan, public, 190, 
191 ; Grecian generally, 
157, 204, 206 ; Roman, 293 

Measures and Weights, Gre- 
cian, 214; Roman, 268 

Mechanical trades at Rome, 263 

Medea, 135 

Mediterranean, navigation of, 
152 

Medusa, 104. 130 

Mflicertes, 125 

Melpomene, 127 

Memnon, sounding statue of, 
115 

Memory, systems of artificial, 
67,68 

Mendes, 116 

Menelaus, 137 

Menes, Egyptian king, 71 

Merchants, festival of, 242 j 
Roman, 263 

Mercury, 108 

Mrrmaid, 126 



Mesmerism, a supposition con- 
cerning, 166 

Metals, used by Vulcan, 107 

Metamorphosea,fables respect- 
ing, 85 

Metempsychosis, 84 

Methodicschool in medicine,137 

Metics, or resident aliens at 
Athens, 178 

Metis, wife of Jupiter, 94 

Meton, his cycle, 62 

Midas, gift of Bacchus to, 109 

Milestones, Roman, 16 

Military affairs, of Greeks, 152, 
193; of Romans, 270 

Milk in libations, 147 

Mills, for grain, 264 

Milo, catacombs of, 221 

Milliades, 21,73 

Minerva, 104; festival of, 171; 
temples of, 29, 37 

Mines, 22, 26,38,262 

Minos, 100, 131, 133 

Minotaur, 131, 134 

Mint, at Athens, 213; at Rome, 
267 

Mirrors, ancient, 209 

Mithras, 100, 134 

Mizraim, grandson of Noah, 71 

Mnemosyne, 124, 126 

Mnevis, 123 

Moeris, lake of, 54 

Moloch, 91 

Momus, 119 

Money, of the Greeks, 212, 213; 
the Romans, 266, 267, 275 

Months of Greeks and Romans, 
60, 61 ; personified, 127 

Monuments to the dead, 221, 
302 

Morals and manners in Greece 
and Rome, 227 

Morea, 34 

Morpheus, 130 

Mosaic floors, 290 

Mosque at Cordova, 9 

Mother of gods, 93 

Mourning for the dead, 300, 
302, 304 

Mules, use of, by Romans, 266 

Mummies, 55, 221 

Municipal towns, Roman. 258 

Murraor Murrhinum, vases of, 
263 

Musaeus, 150 

Muses, 126; on the ring of 
Pyrrhus, 127 

Music, in Greek education, 159, 
accompaniment of ban- 
quets, 216, and ofsacrifices, 
238; science of, 216 

Musical instruments, 216; in 
Roman army, 272 

Myriologues, 221 

Mysteries, of Cabiri, 136 ; Eleu- 
sinian, 112, 169 

Mythic poetry, 88 

Mythical personages connected 
with the gods, 124 

Mythographers, Greek, 88 ; Ro- 
man, S8 

Mythology. 83; utility of a 
knowledge of, 86; resem- 
blance between classical 
and oriental, 86, 94, 95; 
diiferences between Greek 
and Roman, 87 

N. 
Nail, ceremony of fixing in the 

temple of Jupiter, 242 
Names, of Romans, 285; of 

towns in England ending 

in cester, 280 



Naval affairs of Greeks, 152, 
200,212; of Romans, 282 

Naval battle, 203, 282 

Navigation of Greeks, 152 

Nemean games, 174 

Nemesis, 117 

Neptune, 98 

Nereids, 98 

Nero, his tyranny, 78; burning 
of Rome, 225 

Nessus, the centaur, 134 

Nestor, 137 

Netha, Egyptian deity, 104 

Nets, for fishing, 158 

New Testament, literary im- 
portance of, 242 ; Apocry- 
phal, 243 

Newton's Chronology, 64, 66 

New-vear's presents at Rome, 
241 

Nicias, 64 

Night, goddess of, 101, 115, 117 

Nimrod, 69 

Ninias, 69 

Niobe, 102, 117, 136 

Nobility, Roman, 254 

Nones, 61, 240 

Notation, Greek, 213; Roman, 
267 

Nox, 100,115 

Numa, his influence at Rome, 
75, 226, 229 

Numbers, designated by let- 
ters, Grecian, 213; Roman, 
267 

Nuptial celebrations, 159, 220 
287 

Nymphs, 126 

O. 

Oases, Egyptian, 55 

Oaths, of Greeks, 163; of Ro- 
mans, 239; Roman sol- 
diers, 270 

Obelisks, 19, 55 

Ocean, 98 

Octavius or Augustus, 77 

Odea, 19, 32 

Odin, 105 

Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, 
79 

CEnomaus and Pelops, 136 

Offences, penal, at Rome, 259 

Offerings to the gods, 148, 149 
238 

Official robe of magistrates, 297 

Ogyges, 133 

Ointments of the ancients, 158, 
210,299 

Old and new style, 62 

Olympic games, 173 

Olympus, residence of the gods, 
88 

Omens. 149, 168, 233 

0(nphale, 134 

Oplitodrome, 172 

Ops or Rhea, 93 

Oracles,l49, 164, 166; Sibyline, 
240; of Apollo, 101 

Organ, musical instrument, 
217, 247 

Orion, 114, 125 

Ornaments, architectural, 290; 
personal of Romans, 299 

Orthos, 131 

Osiris, no, 122 

Ostia, salt-works at, 262 

Ostracism, 187 

Otus and Ephialtes, 105 

Ovation, 284 

Ox, symbol of Osiris, 122; 
bones found in the Kgyp 
tian pyramid, 123 



GENERAL INDEX. 



329 



p. 

Paederasty, 220 

Pagan fables, coincidence of 

with scripture, 84 
Paganism and Popery, 137 
Painting, ancient, remains of, 

5{) 
Palace, origin of the word, 16 
Palaemon, 125 
Palladium, 104, 113 
Palm, token of victory. 243 
Pan, 116; priests of, 235 
Panathenaic vases, 172 
Panathenaea, 171 
Pandora, 107 

Panic, origin of the word, 116 
Pantheon, 17 
Parents, respect to, 159 
Parga, fate of, 25 
Parks of the Romans, 292 
Parnassus, 127 
Paros, Chronicle of, 65 
Parthenon, 104 
Parthenopaeus, 136 
Parthian history, 70 
Patricians and plebeians, 243 
Patroclus, funeral of, 222 
Patrons and clients, 254, 295 
Paulus ^niilius, and the Epi- 

rotes, 25 
Peace, temple of, 18; temple 

of Janus in time of, 18, 93 
Pegasus, 131, 133 
Peiias, 135 
Pelopidae, 136 
Pelopidas of Thebes, 74 
Peloponnesian war, 74 
Pelops,133, 136 
Peperino, stone so called, 303 
Pericles, statesman, &e. 73 
Perjury, at Rome, 239 
Persecution of Christians, 78, 

261 
Persephone, or Proserpine, 99 
Persepolis, ruins of, 44 
Perseus, 133 
Persian Chronology, outline of, 

70; kings, their residences, 

44 
Personification of various ob- 
jects, 119 
Pessinus, origin of the name, 94 
Petalism, 187 
Petrified city, 56 
Phaeton, 101 
Phalanx, Grecian, 196 
Phial of tears, 303 
Philip of Macednn, 73 
Philippi, siteof, 22; battle of, 77 
Philopcemen, 75 
Philosophy, Christian, 210 
Phlegon, eclipse named by, 64 
Phlegyas, 100 

Phocian, or Sacred War, 74 
Phocians, 27 
Phoebus, 100 
Phoenician history, 70 
Phoroneus, 133 
Physicians, Roman, 262 
Picus, king of Latins, 130 
Pierus, 126 

Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 149, 302 
Pillars, or columns, 19 
Pipe,of Pan,&c.,216, 217 
Pirithous, 135 
Pisistratus, 72, 177 
Plavs of the Greeks, 172; Ro- 

'mans, 243, 295 
Plebeians and Patricians at 

Rome, 75, 253 
Pleiades, the constellation, 108 
Pleione, 105 
Plow, Grecian, 212; Roman, 

264 i 



Pluto. 98 

Plulu's, 118 

Podalirius, 117 

Poetry, mythic, 88 

Poets, influence on religion of 
Greeks, 146 

Polemarch at Athens, 181 

Pollux and Castor, 18, 135 

Polydectes, 133 

Polydorus, 136 

Polygamy, not allowed by the 
Greeks, 220 

Polyhymnia, 127 

Polynices, 136 

Pomona, 119 

Pompeii, implements, &c., dis- 
interred at, 291, 292, 294, 
300 

Pompey, 70, 77 

Pompey's Pillar, 55 

Pomptine or Pontine marshes, 
11 

Pontiffs, Roman, 232 

Poor, at Athens, how support- 
ed, 183 

Populace, Roman, 253 

Population of Rome, 225 

Populousness of ancient na- 
tions, 178, 225 

Porticos, 19, 31, 36, 38 

Portunmns, 125 

Posthumius, 11 

Posts, on Roman roads, 15 

Pottery, Roman, 263 

Pound, Roman, or libra, 270 

Pracriti, Hindoo goddess, 94 

Prsedial servitudes, 268 

Praefects, 251, 285 

Praetorian soldiers, 284 

Praetors, Roman, 249 

Praetus, 131 

Prayers, of Greeks, 147; of 
Romans, 237 

Precession of the equinoxes, a 
means of settling dates, 64 

Priam, kingdom of, 70 

Priapus, 119 

Priests and priestesses, Greek, 
147,162; imposture of, 164; 
Roman, 232, 235 ; classes 
of them made by later 
writers, 235 

Prison of state, at Rome, 260; 
Sparta, 187, 191 ; Athens 
and other places, 187 

Prizes, in the funeral games, 
222, 304 

Procession at the Circensian 
games, 243 ; triumphal,283 ; 
funeral, 302 

Proconsuls, 252 

Procris, 115 

Professions, at Rome, 262 

Property, among Romans, 268 ; 
basis of division into class- 
es, 253 

Propraetors, 252" 

Proquaestors, 252 

Proserpine, 99, 112 

Provinces, Roman, 226, 258 

Provincial niHgistraies of Ro- 
mans, 252, 258 

Prytanes, at Athens, 184 

Psammelicus, 71 

Psyche and Cupid, story of, 
107 

Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71 

Publicans of the New Testa- 
ment, 262 

Pulpit, origin of the word, 247 

Punic language, 40 ; wars, 72 

Punishments, Athenian, 186, 
199; Spartan, 191 ; Roman, 
260; of Roman soldiers, 275 



Purifications, Greek, 147, 163; 

Roman, 239 
Purple dye, its costliness, 297 
Pygmies, 125 
Pyramids, 55, 123 
Pyrrha, 133 
Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76 
Pythian games, 101, 174 
Pylho, 101 

Q. 

QuEestors, Roman, 250 
Queen of gods, 96 
Quinquatria, 104 
Quirites, rights of, 258 
Quoit, or Discus, 173, 243 

R. 

Race, Grecian, 172; Roman, 
243 

Races or families at Rome, 286 

Rainbow personified, 96, 115 

Raising a child, 287 

Rama, Hindoo deity, 110 

Ras Sem, the petrified city, 56 

Religion of the Greeks, 145, 
160; expenses of, 182; the 
Romans, 229 

Repasts, of Greeks, 157, 204; 
Romans, 293 

Residents at Athens, 178 

Revenue of Athens, 181; of 
Rome, 261 

Review-muster, or Armilus- 
trium, 242 

Rewards of Athens, 187; Spar- 
ta, 191 ; of Roman soldiers, 
274; Roman generals, 2S3 

Rhadamanthus, 100 

Rhea, 93 

Rhodes, Greek letters at, 34 

Riches, god of, 118 

Riding on horseback, 156, 266 

Rights of citizens and subjects 
of Rome, 258 

Ring, badge of knighthood, 2-50; 
ofGyges, 99 

Rings, 299 

Rites, of marriage, 220, 287; 
religious, 147, 148, 237 

River* called infernal, 99 

Roads, Roman, 15 

Roman antiquities, 227 

Romans, their empire, 75, 226 ; 
most brilliant era, 227 

Rome, goddess of, 119; foun- 
dation of. 225 ; govern- 
ment of, 248, 2J9; extent 
of empire, 226 ; luxury and 
decline, 227 ; classes or di- 
vision of the people, 252; 
population, 225; topogra- 
phy, 16; chronology of, 75 
•Romulus and Remus, 225 

Rope-dancers, 244 

Rotunda or Pantheon, 17 

Rowers, their benches in the 
ancient galley, 202 

Runners among the Greeks, 199 

Runninii, one df the games, 172 

Rural deities, 120 

S. 

Sacer, Mt. 76 

Saikbiit, 217 

Sacred or Phocian War, 74, 165 

Sacrifices, human, 91 ; of the 
Greeks, 117, 148, 163; Ro- 
mans, 232, 237; origin of, 
148 

Saddles and stirrups, 266 

Saguntuni, siege of, 76 

Salamat or Menmon, statue of. 
115 



330 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Salaries, at Rome, 262 
Sale by aiiGlion, 268 
Salic priests, 235 
S;'.lt, token of friendship, 207 
Salt-works, Roman, 262 
Siliis, goddess of health, 118 
Saititiel, 69 

Saidutiapaliis, 69 

Sa/dis, biirnitig of, 73 

Sardonic laugh, 40 

Saturn, 91 

Satvrs, 130 

Scaling l;ulders, 230 

Scepiers. 248 

Scliiva, Hindoo deity, 110 

Scipio, conqueror of Carthage, 
77 

Scironian rocks, 28 

Scriptures, Sacred, attested in 
Pagan fictions, 84 

Scylla and Charybdis, 132 

Scytliinn guards at Athens, 32 

Sea-fi?ht, 203, 282 ; mock, 243 

Seasons personified, (31, 127 

Seaiur, German deity, 91 

Sertorian war, 8 

Seleucidae, 70 

.Self-devuiion, 239 

Seineie, 109 

Semiiamis, 69 

Senate, Athenian, 184; Spar- 
tan, 190; Roman, 256 

Septuagint, chronology of, 66 

Sepulchers, Greek, 222; of 
early Christians, 223 ; Ro- 
man in England, 303 

Serapis. 123 

Serfs, in Italy, 290 

Serpent, in fables respecting 
Apollo, and Crishna, 101; 
emblem of health, 117 

Servitudes, 268 

Sesostris, 71 

Sesterce, value of, 267 

Seven wonders ofthe world, 114 

Sewers of Rome, 19 

Shield, the sacred, 235 

Shields, ancient; 153, 194, 274; 
of Hercules and Achilles, 
153 

Ships, Grecian 154, 200'; Ro- 
man, 282 

Shipwreck, prs-ctice of those 
surviving. 238 

Shoes, 208, 298 ; of horses, 266 

Shows or spectacles at Rome, 
243 

Sibyls, books of, 240 

Sieges, manner of, 198, 280; 
celebrated, 282 

Signals of battle, 198 

Signs, in the heavens, &.c. 167 

Silence, god of, 121 

Sileni, LiO 

Silenus, curious image of, at 
Paros, 110 

Silk, known to the ancients, 
209, 298 

SingiuL' at feasts, 207 

Shreiis, 125, 126 

SistruMi,2]8 

Sisyphus, 100 

Siva, Hindoo deitv, 95 

Slaves, in Greece,' 159, 178, 180; 
at Sparta, 189; Roine, 285, 
289; patron srnddess ofthe 
freed, 120, 290 ; trade in, 
263;repnt)licof, in Sicily, 41 [ 

Sleep, god of, 130 " i 

Sneezing, ominous, 149 

Sobriquet or burlesque name, I 
286 

*locial entertainments, 214, 295; 
war in Italy, 77 I 



Socrates, his trial, &c. 74 

Sofa-bfd,212 

Sol, 114; statue jf, at Rhodes, 
114 

Solar cycle, 63 

Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 
193; of Roman, 271, 272; 
load carried by Roman, 
274, 280 

Solomon, reisn of, 69 

Solon, his influence on Athens, 
177 

Somnambulism, in ancient 
times, 166 

Soul, state of, after death, 95; 
weighing of, by Egyptians, 
100 

Spain, mines of, 262 

Sparta, under Lycurgus, 142; 
rival of Athens, 142; 
changes in government, 
151; system of educaiinn, 
189; magistrates of, 189; 
public meals, 190; consti- 
tution, 188. 190; topogra- 
phy, 36 

Spectacles or shows, Roman, 
243 

Sphere of Chiron, 64 

Sphinx, 132 

S()irits, departed, 99 ; fallen, 129 

Spoils of war, how divided, 
154, 199 

S()oletto, aqueduct at, 10 

Spurs, 266 

Stage, actors on Greek, 176; 
parts of Roman, 247 

Staircases, 291 

Standards, military, Grecian, 
198; Roman, 272 

Statues, found at Pompeii, 298 

Stheno, 130 

Stirrups, 266 

StonehengH, 148 

Storms, goddesses of, 128 

Strangers, treatment of by the 
Greeks, 207 

Stucco-painting, 290 

Styx, 99 

Suliotes, bravery of, 25 

Sun, the Fountain of, 56; sta- 
tue of at Rhodes, 42 

Sun-dial, 60 

Sun-god, 93; worship, 114 

Superior gods, 91 

Suppers of the Roinans, 294 

Supplicants, 147 

Surgical instruments, of Ro- 
mans, 263 

Swearing, among the Romans, 
239 

Swimming among the ancients, 
293 

Swords, 196, 274 ; of Noricum, 7 

Sybarites, 13, 15 

Syenite, .54 

Sylla, and Marius, 77 ; conque- 
ror of Athens, 177 

Syracuse, constitution of, 192; 
lopoirraphy of. 40 

Syria, kingdom of, 70 

Syrinx, 116 

Svthes, chariots armed with, 
194 



Table, of Isis, 123; genealogi- 
cal, of mvthology, 90; an- 
c'ient for eating, 206, 294 

Tables and charts, 66 

Tables, twi-lve, 261 

Talent, value of, 213 

Tammuz, Syrian deity, 106 

Tantalus, 100. 136 



Tapestry, ancient, 218 

Tarentines, 15 

Tarpeian rock, 16, 260 

Tarquin, expulsion of, 75, 2i!} 

Tartarus, 99 

Taxes at Rome, 261 ; Athens 
181 

Teachers at Rome, 262 

Tears, preservation of, 303 

Telesphorus, 118 

Temples, ancient, 148; Gre- 
cian, 146, 148, 160; in time 
of Homer, 148; Roman, 18, 
230; dedication of, &c 
238; at Athens, 178; of 
.Jupiter Amnion, 95; of 
Isis, 123; Janus, 18; June 
Lacinia, 15 ; Solomon's, 
52, 69 

Tents, of Greek soldiers, 154 

Terminus, 119 

Terpsichore, 127 

Terra cotta, 263 

Thalia, 127 

Theatre, performances in, 176; 
of Romans, 246 ; of Greeks, 
175 

Theban war, heroes of, 136 

Thebes, constitution of, 192; 
supremacy of, 74 

Themis, 94, 117 

Themistocles, his eminence in 
Slate, 73 

Theogony, Greek, 87, 146 

Theomaiicy, 167 

Thersander, 136 

Theseus, 134 

Thessaly, 24 

Thrace, 20, 21, 145 

Thracians, widows, 149 

Thrasybulus, 177 

Thrasyilus, monument of, 33 

Threshing-floor, 264 

Thyestes, 136 

Thymbra, battle of, 70 

Thyone, 109 

Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 110 

Time, personified. 91 

Titanides, 91, 124' 

Titans, 124 

Tithonus, 114 

Titus, conqueror, 70 

Tityus, 100 

Toilet, Grecian, 209; Roman, 
299, 300 

Tomb, of Cyrus, &c., 223 ; Rr,. 
man at Pompeii, 303; at 
Cyrene, 66; of Virgil, 12 

Tombs of early Christians, 303 

Topography, of Rome, 16; of 
Athens, 28; Sparta, 36 

Totila,Rome laid waste by, 225 

Towers, ancient, 281 

Towns, with names ending in 
cester, 280 

Trade, at Rome, 263 ; in slaves, 
2«9 

Traditions of mythology, 83 

Translucent stone, 290 

Treasury, Athenian, 182; Ro- 
man, 261 

Treaties, 157, 234 

Trees, cultivated by Romans, 
264 

Trial, of persons accused, 185 
259 

Tribes, of Athens, 177, 178; 
Sparta, 188; Rome, 252 

Tribunes, Roman, 76, 250, 251 

Trident, 98 

'I'ripods, consecrated to Apollo 
149, 165; street of, 33 

Triptolemus, 110 

Triremes, 202 



GENERAL INDEX. 



831 



Trismegistus, 108 

Tritons, 125 

Triumph of Roman generals, 
2Sd 

Triuiiivirate, 77, 252, 267 

Irojan history, 70 ; war, 70, 72 

Trophies, 19, 149, 199 

Trophonius, oracle of, 166 

Trumpets. 217 

1 ubal-Cain, 107 

Tunnel of Pausilypus, 12 

Tusks of the Calydonian boar, 
26 

Twelve Tables, laws of, 261 

Tvdeus, 136 

Typhon, 125, 132 

Tyranny, Roman, over pro- 
vinces, 258 

Tyrants, the thirty, 74, 177 

Tyre, capture of, by Alexan- 
der, 70 

U. 

Ulysses. 137 

Urania, 127 

Uranus, 113 

Urns, for voting, 184; for de- 
positing the ashes of the 
dead, 221, 303 

Utensils, ancient, found at 
Pompeii, 291, 300; repre- 
sented on Egyptian monu- 
ments, 232 



Vdlor, 18 

Valley of Moffeta, 12 

Valmic, Hindoo poet, 110 

Vases, Paiiathenaic, 172; sa- 
crificial, 232; Egyptian, 124 

Veils, 208, 209 

Venus, 105; places sacred to 
her, 106 ; temple of, at Hie- 
rapolis, 106; at Paphos, 
53; Anadynmene, 106 

Vertumnus, 119 

Vessels, for holding wine, 296, 
297; nf war, 200, 282; sa- 
cnticial, 232 

Vesta, 93. 113 

Vestal virgins, 113,236 

Vices, deified, 122 

Victims, in sacrifice, 237 

Victory, goddess of, 120 ; re- 
wards of, 199, 204 



Vigils, or watches of Romans, j 



59 

Villas, or country seats of Ro- 
mans, 12, 291 

Violet, robe of office, 297 

Violin, ancient, 217 

Virgo, 117 

Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 95 

Virtues, deified, 122 

Voting, Athenian rnnde of, 183, 
18'4; Roman, 256, 257 

Vows, 238 

Vulcan, 107 

Vulcanalia, 107 

W. 

Waaes of Roman soldiers, 274 

Walls, Roman in England, 40 

Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 108 

War, heroes of the Theban, 
136; of the Trojan, 136; 
affairs of, among Greeks, 
153, 193; Romans, 270: 
declaration of, 197, 234; 
the Social, 77; the Sacred, 
165; the Sertorian, 8; of 
Troy, Bryant's view of it, 
137 

War-chariots, 193 

W'ar-engines, 280 

W^ar-galleys,200, 282 

Wards or boroughs of Attica, 
178 

Watches, divisions of the night, 
60, 240, 280 

Watch-word, 280 

Water-clock, 60 

Wealth, instances of Roman, 
267; god of, 118 

Weapons or arms, of the an- 
cients, 153, 194, 274 

Weeding, goddess of, 120 

Week, known to Egyptians, 61 

Weights and measures, Greek, 
214; Roman, 266 

W'ell of Syene, 54 

Widows, burning of at fune- 
rals, 149 

Wife of the Rex Sacroriim, and 
of the Flamen Dialis, 234, 
235 

Wills, 221 

Wind-instruments of music, 
217 

Wind, woven, 209 



Windows, of Roman houses, 
290 

Winds, as gods, 123; temple 
of, 31. 60 

Wine-cellars, 291,296 - 

Wines, of Greeks, 204 ; of Ro- 
mans, 295; history of, 204, 
297 

Winter-quarters, of Roman 
soldiers, 280 

Witnesses in courts, 239 

Women, condition and em- 
ployments of among the 
Greeks, 158, 218; Romans 
287 

Wonders of the world, seven. 
114 

World, as known to the an- 
cients 3 

Worship, Greek religious, 148; 
Roman, 237 

Wrestling, 173,243 

Writers, on mythology, 68, 
89; on Greek antiquities, 
144, 146; Roman antiqui- 
ties, 227, 228 ; Roman mili- 
tary affairs, 270; ancient 
weights and measures,270 ; 
chronology, 6b; on horo- 
logy, 60 ; topography of 
Rome, 16; topography of 
Athens, 33; of SpartH, 38 ; 
Byzantium, 20; Babylon 
and Nineveh, 53; Jerusa- 
lem, 52. — See also refer- 
ences under specific sub- 
jects ; e. g for writers on 
Jewish history, see Jewish 
history, in this Index. 



Xerxes, king of Persia, 70 

Y. 

Year, division of by the an- 
cients, 62 

Yero or Jero, 117 

Young, time of burying among 
the Greeks, 221 

Youth, goddess of, 96 



Zama, battle of, 72, 77 
Zodiac of Denderah, 54 
Zones 4 



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